On Monday, September 24, the Karnataka High Court permitted an investigation into Chief Minister Siddaramaiah in connection with the alleged Mysore Urban Development Authority (MUDA) scam.
What was the MUDA scam case?
The Allegations: In July 2023, anti-corruption activists approached Karnataka Governor Thawarchand Gehlot, alleging that Chief Minister Siddaramaiah’s wife, Parvathi, received 14 housing sites from the Mysore Urban Development Authority (MUDA).
This was allegedly in exchange for a 3.16-acre plot of land that MUDA illegally acquired in 2021, during the tenure of the BJP-led government. The scam allegedly caused a loss of ₹55.80 crore to the state.
Governor’s Action: In response, the Governor issued a show-cause notice to Siddaramaiah and later sanctioned an investigation under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 (PCA) and the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023.
What were the grounds for Siddaramaiah’s challenge?
Council of Ministers’ Advice: The Chief Minister argued that the Governor was bound by the Council of Ministers’ August 1, 2023 resolution, advising withdrawal of the show-cause notice.
Governor’s Discretion: Siddaramaiah contended that the Governor’s sanction was unjustified, biased, and exceeded his discretionary powers, which could only be invoked if the Council’s decision was irrational.
What did the court decide?
The Karnataka High Court upheld the Governor’s sanction for the investigation, stating that the circumstances justified the Governor’s actions under “exceptional circumstances.”
The court observed that the Governor’s decision was not made in haste but after careful consideration of the allegations and relevant facts.
The court clarified that private individuals (complainants) can seek approval to investigate public officials under the Prevention of Corruption Act, and the Governor’s approval can be granted even in such cases.
The court lifted the interim embargo on the investigation against Siddaramaiah, allowing the inquiry to continue into the alleged MUDA scam.
Conclusion: The Karnataka High Court upheld Governor Gehlot’s sanction for an investigation into the alleged MUDA scam, rejecting Siddaramaiah’s challenge. The court ruled that exceptional circumstances justified the Governor’s actions, allowing the inquiry to proceed.
Scientists long believed that volcanic activity on the moon ceased about a billion years ago.
However, a study based on China’s Chang’e-5 missionsamples has questioned this belief with evidence suggesting the moon had active volcanoes as recently as 120 million years ago.
Chang’e-5 Mission: Overview and Recent Findings
Chang’e-5 is a mission launched in November 2020 as part of the Chang’e lunar exploration program.
It was designed to:
Collect samples from the moon’s surface and bring them back to Earth for analysis.
Study the geologyand mineral composition of the moon.
It successfully landed on the “Mons Rumker region”, a volcanic complex in the Oceanus Procellarum (the ‘Ocean of Storms’) area on the moon’s near side, and returned about 1.7 kgof lunar material to Earth in December 2020.
Recent Findings Based on Chang’e-5 Mission
Recent studies of samples have revealed evidence of volcanic activity on the moon as recently as 116-135 million years ago.
It challenges the previous belief that the moon’s volcanic activity ceased about a billion years ago.
The analysis of lunar glass beads collected by Chang’e-5 has provided insights into both volcanic eruptions and asteroid impacts that shaped the moon’s surface.
What are the Beads on the Moon?
Lunar glass beads are small, spherical or egg-shaped glass particles found on the moon’s surface.
These beads are formed in two main ways:
Volcanic Activity: During volcanic eruptions, molten lava fragments are thrown into the air, where they cool rapidly and form glass beads.
Impact Events: When asteroids or meteorites hit the moon’s surface, the intense pressure and heat melt the surface material. The molten material cools quickly, forming glass beads as it lands back on the surface.
These beads are important because they:
Provide clues about the moon’s geological history.
Help scientists determine the age of volcanic eruptions.
Offer insights into the formation of the moon’s surface and its volcanic and impact events.
Key characteristics of Lunar Glass Beads
Composition: These beads are primarily made of silicon, magnesium, and iron, with trace amounts of other elements such as potassium, titanium, and uranium.
Volcanic vs. Impact Beads: Volcanic glass beads tend to be more uniform, while impact beads may show fractures or deformations caused by high-energy impacts. Volcanic beads often contain more volatile elements like sulphur, which are released during eruptions.
PYQ:
[2012] What do you understand by the term Aitken basin?
(a) It is a desert in the southern Chile which is known to be the only location on earth where no rainfall takes place.
(b) It is an impact crater on the far side of the Moon.
(c) It is a Pacific coast basin, which is known to house large amounts of oil and gas.
(d) It is a deep hyper saline anoxic basin where no aquatic animals are found.
The Indian Army is set to receive its first batch of three AH-64E Apache attack helicopters from Boeing in December.
About AH-64E Apache Attack Helicopters:
Details
Name and Origin
AH-64E Apache (Apache Guardian) is a highly advanced multi-role combat helicopter and lies in a heavy category.
Manufactured by Boeing, originating from the US.
India’s Acquisition
In February 2020, India signed a deal for six AH-64E helicopters, with an additional six contracted later.
Countries Operating
Operated by India, Egypt, Israel, Japan, South Korea, UAE, UK, and others.
Indigenous Production
Tata Boeing Aerospace Limited (TBAL), a joint venture, produces fuselages in Hyderabad, set to become the sole global producer, sourcing 90% of parts from India.
Combat Features
Features open architecture for advanced systems, enhanced thrust and lift, digital interoperability, improved survivability, and advanced infrared and night vision capabilities.
Deployment Plans for Apache
The Apaches are primarily suited for countering armour and will be deployed in desert regions.
However, due to their operational limitations at high altitudes, they won’t be used in regions like Ladakh.
Instead, the indigenous Light Combat Helicopter (LCH), manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., will be deployed in Ladakh by 2024-25.
The LCH is designed specifically for high-altitude conditions.
PYQ:
[2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?
India has announced its official entry for the Best International Feature Film category at the 97th Academy (Oscar) Awards, set to take place early next year.
About the Film Federation of India (FFI)
The FFI is the main body representing the interests of the Indian film industry, including producers, distributors, and exhibitors.
It was established in 1951.
The FFI’s primary goal is to promote and protect the Indian film industry, both in India and internationally.
It plays a key role in selecting India’s official entry for the Best International Feature Film category attheOscar Awards.
How does the FFI make the choice?
Submission Process: The FFI invites filmmakers to submit their films for consideration. To be eligible, the film must:
Be at least 40 minutes long.
Have more than 50% of its dialogue in a non-English language.
Have had a theatrical release of at least seven days between November 1, 2023, and September 30, 2024.
Jury Selection: The FFI appoints a 13-member jury made up of experienced individuals from the creative field, who evaluate the films and select India’s entry.
The jury chairperson is nominated by the FFI and oversees the selection process.
Screening and Voting: The jury watches all the submissions and conducts discussions before making a final decision via voting.
Why has the FFI come under criticism?
All-Male Jury: The FFI’s current jury has drawn criticism for being composed entirely of men. This led to public discussions about the absence of women on the jury, especially since India’s official entry for the 97th Oscars focuses on women’s issues.
Arbitrary Process: FFI’s selection process can be arbitrary, and there have been calls for greater transparency and inclusiveness in choosing films for international awards like the Oscars.
PYQ:
[2014] What do understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
The Spices Board of India aims to achieve $25 billion in annual exports of spices and spice-based products by 2047, a significant increase from the current $4.4 billion.
Current consumption is 10 million tonnes, with 1.42 million tonnes exported annually. By 2047, the export target is 2.7 million tonnes.
AboutSpices Board of India
The merger of the erstwhile Cardamom Board and Spices Export Promotion Council on 26th February 1987, under the Spices Board Act 1986 led to the formation of the Spice Board of India.
The Board functions as an International link between the Indian exporters and the importers abroad with a nodal Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
It is headed by a Chairman, a rank equivalent to Joint Secretary to the GoI.
Headquartered in Kochi, it has regional laboratories in Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Tuticorin, Kandla and Guntur.
Main Functions:
It promotes organic production, processing, and certification of spices.
Responsible for the overall development of Cardamom.
It focuses on post-harvest improvement programs to improve the quality of the 52 scheduled spices for export.
These programs are included under the head ‘Export Oriented Production’.
Present Scenario of Spices
Production:
Major producing states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
During 2022-23, the export of spices from India stood at US$ 3.73 billion, up from US$ 3.46 billion in 2021-22.
India produces about 75 of the 109 varieties listed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Out of these spices, chili, cumin, turmeric, ginger, and coriander make up about 76% of the total production.
Chilli is the leading export earner, generating $1.1 billion annually.
Ginger exports have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 27%.
Export:
In 2023-24, India’s spice exports totalled $4.25 billion, accounting for a 12% share of the global spice exports (till February 2024 data).
India exported spices and spice products to 159 destinations worldwide as of 2023-24. The top destinations were China, the USA, Bangladesh, the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the UK, and Sri Lanka. These countries accounted for more than 70% of total exports.
PYQ:
[2019] Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?
Q) “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain. (UPSC CSE 2021)
Q) Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2020)
Q) The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same. (UPSC CSE 2018)
Mentor’s Comment: The Galwan Valley clash in June 2020 marked a significant deterioration in India-China relations, leading to profound shifts in the geopolitical and strategic calculus of both nations. The confrontation, which resulted in the deaths of 20 Indian soldiers and at least 4 Chinese soldiers, was the deadliest since the 1962 India-China war.
The future of economic cooperation between India and China will largely depend on how both nations navigate their geopolitical tensions and mutual dependencies. While there are opportunities for collaboration through investment and trade, significant barriers remain due to unresolved border disputes and India’s strategic shift towards self-reliance. As both countries reassess their positions in a rapidly changing global landscape, their economic relationship will likely continue to be characterized by cautious engagement rather than robust cooperation.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On September 12, Indian External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar noted that approximately 75% of disengagement issues along the border have been resolved, yet emphasized the ongoing challenge of militarization at the border.
Further, during the BRICS NSA meeting in St. Petersburg, both sides agreed to expedite efforts for complete disengagement in the remaining areas.
What are the implications of China’s border policies on India-China relations?
Escalation of Tensions: China’s aggressive border policies, particularly since the 2020 Galwan Valley clash, have led to heightened militarization along the Line of Actual Control (LAC), creating an environment of distrust and hostility between the two nations.
Strategic Reassessment: The violent confrontations have prompted India to reassess its approach towards China, moving from a stance of cautious engagement to one of strategic vigilance and preparedness for potential conflict. This includes a call for greater military readiness and strengthening alliances, such as with the Quad.
Impact on Bilateral Relations: Chinese attempts to compartmentalize the border dispute from broader bilateral ties are increasingly seen as untenable by India.
The Indian government insists that progress in overall relations is contingent upon resolving border issues.
Domestic Sentiment and Policy Changes: The public’s perception of China has deteriorated sharply following military confrontations, leading to calls for boycotting Chinese products and a general hardening of attitudes towards Beijing.
This shift in sentiment is influencing India’s foreign policy, pushing for a more adversarial stance.
Geopolitical Dynamics: China’s assertive policies in South Asia, including its close ties with Pakistan and investment initiatives through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), have intensified competition with India for regional influence.
This rivalry complicates diplomatic efforts and fosters a security dilemma.
What role does the QUAD play in India’s new military strategy?
•Counterbalancing China: The Quad is a platform for India to collaborate with the United States, Japan, and Australia to counter China’s assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific. This alignment helps India enhance its military capabilities and strategic posture against potential threats from China. •Enhanced Defense Cooperation: Quad Group has facilitated joint military exercises, like Malabar naval exercises, which strengthen interoperability, enhancing India’s naval capabilities and readiness to respond to regional threats.Participation in the Quad allows India to extend beyond military cooperation to global challenges such as climate change and public health. •Capacity Building and Strategic Autonomy: India leverages the Quad to build its defense capabilities through technology sharing and joint initiatives focused on maritime security, cyber defense, and humanitarian assistance.India seeks to maintain its strategic autonomy by not fully aligning itself with U.S. This approach allows India to navigate its complex relationships with both China and other regional players without compromising its interests. •Economic Opportunities: The Quad enhances India’s attractiveness as an investment destination, particularly post-COVID-19, by promoting economic cooperation among member states. For Example, vaccine distribution highlights India’s role as a leader in regional health security.
How should India respond to China’s demands for normalization of relations?
Conditional Normalization: India should continue to insist on restoring the status quo ante along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) as a prerequisite for any significant diplomatic engagement with China.
Diplomatic Engagement: India should engage in diplomatic discussions with China at various levels, including military-to-military talks and high-level political exchanges, to address mutual concerns and build confidence.
Balanced Approach to FDI: While maintaining security concerns, India could selectively ease restrictions on Chinese Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) that align with its economic interests. This approach could facilitate economic ties while ensuring that strategic sectors remain protected.
Strengthening Alliances: India should enhance collective security through QUAD and counterbalance China’s regional influence. This multilateral approach can give India greater leverage in its dealings with China.
What is the future of economic cooperation given the current geopolitical climate? (Way Forward)
The future of economic cooperation will largely depend on how both nations navigate their geopolitical tensions and mutual dependencies.
The “China plus one” strategy presents significant opportunities for India’s economic growth, particularly as global companies seek to diversify their supply chains away from China.
According to a Nomura report, India’s exports could nearly double from $431 billion in 2023 to $835 billion by 2030, driven by demand from firms relocating to India as they seek alternatives to China.
While there are opportunities for collaboration through investment and trade, significant barriers remain due to unresolved border disputes and India’s strategic shift towards self-reliance.
During the transition to the Scale-Based Regulation (SBR) framework, the NBFC sector experienced double-digit credit growth, maintained adequate capital levels, and saw a reduction in delinquency ratios.
What is Scale-Based Regulation (SBR)?
The SBR framework was first outlined in October 2021 and became effective on October 1, 2022.
It aims to categorize NBFCs based on their size, activities, and perceived riskiness rather than merely distinguishing between systemically important and non-systemically important entities.
What are the key points presented by RBI on the resilience of the NBFC sector?
Improvement in Asset Quality: Since the introduction of the Scale-Based Regulation (SBR) framework in October 2022, the asset quality of NBFCs has improved, with lower gross non-performing asset (GNPA) ratios.
By December 2023, GNPA ratios had decreased to 2.4% for government-owned NBFCs and 6.3% for non-government NBFCs, reflecting enhanced risk management.
Double-Digit Credit Growth: The NBFC sector maintained strong credit growth throughout 2023, driven by a diversified funding base, including retail credit (gold loans, vehicle loans, and housing loans) and expanding into industrial and service sectors.
Improved Profitability: The sector witnessed a rise in profitability, as evidenced by better returns on assets (RoA) and equity (RoE).
Net NPA (NNPA) Performance: Upper layer NBFCs had lower GNPA ratios than middle layer NBFCs, but the latter maintained sufficient provisions for riskier portfolios, ensuring that their NNPA ratios were also controlled.
Compliance with SBR: Major NBFCs in the “Upper Layer” identified by the RBI under the SBR framework, such as LIC Housing Finance, Bajaj Finance, and L&T Finance, have complied or initiated steps to comply with listing requirements.
Regulatory measures taken up by the NBFC sector
Scale-Based Regulation (SBR) Framework: Introduced in October 2022, the SBR framework categorizes NBFCs into different layers based on their size, systemic importance, and risk profile. For instance, strengthen asset quality, capital requirements, and risk management.
Prompt Corrective Action (PCA) Norms: Effective from October 2024, PCA norms will apply to government-owned NBFCs. These measures aim to enhance financial discipline, focusing on capital adequacy and asset quality.
Diversification of Funding Sources: Due to rising risk weights on bank lending, NBFCs have diversified their funding base by reducing dependence on bank borrowings and expanding into secured retail credit.
Listing Compliance: Many NBFCs in the upper layer have complied or are in the process of complying with listing requirements as part of regulatory mandates.
What are the emerging risks that NBFCs need to cater? (Way forward)
Cybersecurity Risks: With the increasing use of digital platforms, NBFCs need to enhance cybersecurity measures to safeguard against evolving cyber threats.
Climate Risk: The financial impact of climate change poses a new risk. NBFCs must integrate climate-related risks into their risk management frameworks to mitigate potential disruptions.
Financial Assurance Functions: The RBI emphasizes that assurance functions like risk management, compliance, and internal audit are critical in maintaining resilience in the face of rapid changes in the financial landscape.
Evolving Regulatory Environment: As the financial sector continues to evolve, NBFCs must stay ahead of regulatory changes and ensure that their risk management practices are aligned with emerging threats and new regulations.
On September 20, 1932, Mahatma Gandhi began a fast unto death in Yerawada Jail, Pune, to protest against the provision of separate electorates for Scheduled Castes.
Gandhi vs Ambedkar on Caste
Gandhi’s Views on Caste: Initially orthodox, Gandhi supported social prohibitions like restrictions on inter-dining and inter-marriage but later rejected untouchability, referring to untouchables as “Harijans.” However, he did not reject the institution of caste itself, as it was tied to Hindu religious practices.
Ambedkar’s Radical Approach: Ambedkar believed that to truly abolish caste, one needed to attack the divine authority of the Hindu scriptures (shastras) that justified it. He argued that reforms short of rejecting the religious basis of caste were insufficient.
Ambedkar’s strategy was to focus on lower castes achieving political power to challenge their subjugation within the Hindu social order.
Ambedkar’s Argument for Separate Electorates
Distinct Identity of Depressed Classes: Ambedkar argued that the Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes) formed a distinct group, separate from the Hindus. Despite being part of Hindu society, they did not enjoy equal treatment and were subject to systemic oppression.
Political Machinery for Representation: Ambedkar advocated for separate electorates with a double vote system, where Scheduled Castes would vote for their own candidates as well as in the general electorate.
Protection from Majority Rule: Ambedkar warned that joint electorates would allow the Hindu majority to control the election of Dalit representatives, making it impossible for lower castes to effectively protect their interests against the tyranny of the majority.
Why Gandhi Opposed Separate Electorates
Integration of Lower Castes: Gandhi opposed separate electorates because he believed they would marginalize lower castes further.
Instead of being restricted to a limited share of seats, Gandhi thought lower castes should aim for broader participation in political leadership.
Fear of Dividing Hindu Society: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would divide Hindu society, further weakening it.
He believed this division would help the British continue their “divide and rule” policy, undermining India’s struggle for independence.
Strategic Concerns: The introduction of separate electorates for Scheduled Castes, in addition to those for Muslims, would fragment the Hindu political base, reducing the power and influence of upper-caste Hindu leadership.
Culmination of the Debate: The Poona Pact
Gandhi’s Fast: In 1932, Gandhi went on a fast unto death to oppose separate electorates, pressuring Ambedkar to concede. Ambedkar, despite his misgivings, agreed to the Poona Pact, which provided for reserved seats for Scheduled Castes but within a joint electorate.
Ambedkar’s Dissatisfaction: Ambedkar was never fully satisfied with the outcome, believing the joint electorate allowed upper-caste Hindus to nominate Dalit representatives, effectively controlling their political voice.
Conclusion: The Gandhi-Ambedkar debate on caste culminated in the Poona Pact, with Gandhi opposing separate electorates to maintain Hindu unity, while Ambedkar sought political power for lower castes. Though Ambedkar agreed, he remained dissatisfied with the compromise.
Mains PYQ:
Q Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B R Ambedkar, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, had a common goal of amelioration of the downtrodden. Elucidate. (UPSC IAS/2015)
In a recent ruling, the Supreme Court has tightened child pornography laws, declaring that viewing, possessing, or failing to report such content is punishable under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, regardless of whether the material is shared or transmitted.
What is the law in question?
The Supreme Court expanded the interpretation of Section 15 of the POCSO Act, which deals with “Punishment for storage of pornographic material involving child”.
In 2019, the POCSO Act was amended to introduce three connected offences under Sections 15(1), (2) and (3) with increasing grades of punishment:
Any person, who stores or possesses pornographic material involving a child, but fails to delete, destroy or report the same to the designated authority with an intention to share or transmit child pornography.
Any person, who stores or possesses such material for transmitting, propagating, displaying or distributing in any manner at any time except for reporting or use as evidence in court.
Any person, who stores or possesses such material for commercial purpose.
The court refers to these as “inchoate” offences – offences in anticipation or preparation for committing a further criminal act.
About the Case and SC’s Verdict
Case Background: The Supreme Court was dealing with a case where the Madras High Court had quashed criminal proceedings against a man who had downloaded child pornography but did not share it.
The High Court had limited its ruling to Section 14 of POCSO (using children for pornography) and excluded Section 15 (punishing possession) since no evidence of sharing existed.
Supreme Court’s Verdict:
The SC overturned the Madras High Court’s ruling, expanding the definition of “possession” of child pornography to include “constructive possession”, even without physical storage of the material.
Viewing, controlling, or exercising knowledge over such material (e.g., watching without downloading) was deemed sufficient for possession.
The SC stressed that even failing to delete or report such content implies intent to share and is punishable under Section 15(1).
Even if the accused does not have the material at the time of filing the FIR, they can still be held accountable if they had possessed it “at any point”.
How will such cases be registered?
Determination of Intention: The court held that the intention (mens rea) of the accused will be determined based on the circumstances, such as how the material was stored or possessed and why it was not reported or destroyed.
Actions like storing, not deleting, or failing to report child pornography can be used as evidence of intent to share or distribute.
Role of Police: The police must not limit their investigation to only one sub-section of Section 15. Even if a specific offence isn’t made out, the police should explore the possibility of other violations under different sub-sections.
Reporting Obligation: The court emphasized the mandatory reporting of child pornography, with penalties for failing to report starting from a fine of Rs. 5,000 and increasing for repeat offences.Failure to report, even after merely viewing child pornographic material, can result in legal consequences.
Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s ruling on the POCSO Act broadened the definition of possession, emphasizing that failure to delete or report child pornography constitutes intent to share, with strict penalties for non-compliance, underscoring the obligation to report such content.
Starlink satellites, operated by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, are causing issues for astronomers by disrupting both optical and radio astronomy due to unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR).
What is a Starlink Satellite?
Starlink satellites are part of a network created by Elon Musk’s SpaceX to provide high-speed internet to remote areas around the world.
The network, known as a satellite constellation, currently includes more than 6,300 satellites orbiting Earth at around 550 km altitude.
These satellites aim to offer internet connectivity to places that would otherwise lack access, especially in rural or underserved regions.
Why Radio Astronomy matters?
Radio astronomy is a branch of astronomy that studiescelestial objectsusingradio frequenciesinstead of visible light.
Radio telescopes detect radio waves, which are longer than light waves, emitted by objects in space such as stars, galaxies, and even black holes.
Radio astronomy is important because it helps scientists study the universe beyond what can be seen with optical telescopes.
Radio noise from sources like satellites can interfere with these observations, making it difficult for astronomers to collect data, similar to how bright lights can obscure faint stars.
What Starlink does to Space Communications?
Starlink satellites are designed to improve global internet access, especially in hard-to-reach places, by transmitting signals from space.
However, these satellites also emit unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR), which causes radio noise that disrupts radio astronomy observations.
The situation may worsen as more satellites are launched — some estimates suggest 100,000 satellites could be orbiting Earth by 2030.
There are currently no regulations controlling how much radio pollution these satellites can emit, making it harder for astronomers to mitigate the impact on their work.
PYQ:
[2011] A layer in the Earth s atmosphere called Ionosphere facilitates radio communication. Why?
1. The presence of ozone causes the reflection of radio waves to Earth.
2. Radio waves have a very long wavelength.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
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