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  • It’s time for the Red Berets

    Context

    The World Health Organisation (WHO) is not equipped to fight a pandemic of this proportion. The world needs a special UN force to fight COVID-19.

    Limits of WHO in the fight against COVID-19

    • The World Health Organisation (WHO) is not equipped to fight a pandemic of this proportion.
    • Its responsibility is to monitor threats to public health and inform and advise the member states. The fight against COVID-19 has to be on a war footing.
    • The need for the composite force: For this we need a composite force that has the capabilities of massive sanitisation, testing, hospitalisation and providing support systems.
    • Signs of conflict: Even the most powerful nations are not able to cope with the effort and there are signs of conflict on account of shortages of equipment and trained personnel.
    • The only UN body which has the training for assembling fighting forces for emergencies is the Department of Peace Operations.

    Pandemic as a threat to international peace and security

    • Contentions over pandemic: The UN Security Council (UNSC) stands paralysed because of petty battles on the name of the pandemic, its origin and the need for transparency.
    • It should hold an emergency meeting and authorise the UN Secretary-General to put together a force under Chapter VII of the UN Charter.
    • Interpreting the mandate: The mandate of the Charter should be interpreted to emphasise that this is the greatest threat to international peace and security.
    • Possibility of conflict: Moreover, conflicts are possible on account of the fragility of the international system.
    • Member states should be requested to send not only troops but also police, health workers and equipment.
    • Deploying the peace force: In war situations, the Secretary-General is able to put together a force in about four months. This operation requires greater emergency.
    • There is some delicacy about deploying the army internally in different political systems, but UN forces have been acceptable in most countries.
    • Who should bear the cost? As for the cost, the responsibility for the deployment of forces for peacekeeping, peace-building and peace enforcement is that of the permanent members.
    • Instead of competing with each other for leadership of the post-COVID-19 world, let them help create a post-COVID-19 world.
    • Fear of devastation in the poor countries: So far COVID-19 has spread in relatively prosperous regions of the world, which have stable infrastructure and health systems.
    • We cannot trust that it will not spread to less equipped states, in which the devastation will be much more.
    • Only a UN force which can enforce social distancing and lockdowns can prevent a catastrophe.

    Resolution under Chapter VII

    • In which situation it is used: Most Chapter VII resolutions determine the existence of a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression in accordance with Article 39, and make a decision explicitly under Chapter VII.
    • A UNSC Resolution is considered to be ‘a Chapter VII resolution’ if it makes an explicit determination that the situation under consideration constitutes a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression, and/or explicitly/ implicitly states that the UNSC is acting under Chapter VII in the adoption of some or all operative paragraphs.
    • Chapter VII resolutions are very rarely isolated measures.
    • Often the first response to a crisis is a resolution demanding the crisis be ended. This is later followed by an actual resolution detailing the measures required to secure compliance with the first resolution.
    • Sometimes dozens of resolutions are passed over time to modify and extend the mandate of the first Chapter VII resolution.
    • The UN stands discredited today as the UNSC has not been able to meet.
    • It may take place, now that China has vacated the Security Council chair and Dominican Republic has taken over.
    • Several resolutions are in circulation, but none under Chapter VII.

    Way forward

    • The first step will be to pass a resolution to take action to end the crisis and authorise the Secretary-General to request member states to make personnel available.
    • Meanwhile, another resolution must spell out the modalities of the operation.
    • Red berets: The UN peacekeeping forces are called Blue Berets because of the colour of the caps that they wear. The health force can have caps of another colour, probably red. The launch of the Red Berets will be a historic action to be taken at a critical moment.

    Conclusion

    This is the right time for the UN to act for the collective action against the pandemic which in turn help in establishing the UN’s relevance.

     

  • 4 pie charts to show that the Nikaalo Prelims Open Test is 110% relevant for Prelims 2020

    4 pie charts to show that the Nikaalo Prelims Open Test is 110% relevant for Prelims 2020

    (Get registered now!) Nikaalo Prelims- All India Open Mock Tests 2020

    (The first test is on 12th April 2020)

    You are studying hard. Others are too. 

    Then why aspirants are unable to clear the pre cutoffs? Many of them are UPSC veterans, some already in-service officers and some who had just appeared for the interviews. 

    No, we aren’t going to talk about what, how, and from where to study. You know it very well.

    We are going to go deeper. (Pie chart alert)

    The questions in GS paper are of varying difficulty level, from different subjects and topics, some are straight forward and some are quite complex with varying levels of interlinkages and interconnections.

    Nikaalo Prelims TELEGRAM group (Join here).

    We will take you behind the scenes where question papers are made at Civilsdaily. 

    Today we will discuss one of Civilsdaily’s innovation Question tagging, to explain how our mocks resemble very closely to UPSC papers.

    Tagging helps us to ensure:

    1. Balanced coverage of static and current affairs.
    2. Optimum difficulty level.
    3. Relevance to UPSC syllabus and pattern.
    4. Coverage of important themes.

    In short, we tag questions based on different parameters. We do it at different levels.

    For example, from our first Open Mock test (on Government schemes and policies) we are going to discuss 4 of them:

    1. Question type.
    2. Difficulty level
    3. Ministry wise
    4. Subject or domain wise.

    In our first Nikaalo Prelims mock test we have used three variants of questions: 

    1. Normal questions are straightforward questions. They are relatively easier to solve. 
    2. In Consolidated questions, various facets of the same scheme are asked in the question. 
    3. While in Comparative questions different angles of two or more schemes are discussed and asked.

    Not all questions are on the same difficulty level in UPSC. We usually tag questions on 7 levels of difficulty. In the first open test, we have used four levels of difficulty (levels 2 – 5). 

    Here difficulty may arise due to lack of basic or deeper knowledge of the scheme, making linkages between other schemes or eliminating the options.

     

    Scope of operation of GoI is wide. There are schemes and policies related to every ministry. While preparing, students tend to focus on a few important ones. 

    Have a look at the diversity of the ministries and departments in the above chart. All important schemes have been touched upon. We made it sure.

     

    Every scheme or policy by the GoI or State govt can be classified under a particular topic from the UPSC pre syllabus. We have made further classification but for the sake of demonstration broad one has been used here. 

    This was just one aspect as to how we make sure our mock tests are:

    1. Relevant to your needs.
    2. As per expectation of UPSC
    3. Testing your knowledge and understanding at various levels

    (Get registered now!) Nikaalo Prelims- All India Open Mock Tests 2020

    We will share other behind the scenes as well till then buckle up for 12th April 2020

  • Financing the pandemic rescue package

    Context

    The priority for India is to ensure that it overcomes the COVID-19 pandemic and kick-starts GDP growth.

    Financing strategy for the 1.7 lakh crores package

    • Rather than fix the weaknesses in the macroeconomy: a high fiscal deficit of 7.49% and government indebtedness that was 69% of GDP in 2019, the government wants to overcome the pandemic.
    • When COVID-19 cases began to increase, the Government of India (GoI) swung into action by announcing a 21-day national lockdown and a ₹1.7-lakh crore (approximately $22.59 billion) rescue package.
    • Financing strategy: Available in the state disaster relief fund is ₹60,000 crore, comprising ₹30,000 crore of the outstanding balance and the Central government’s allocation of a similar amount for FY2021.
    • Hence, the GoI needs to raise an additional ₹1.1-lakh crore,e., 65% of the rescue package outlay.
    • Its financing strategy should be to raise long-term funds at cost-effective rates, with flexible repayment terms that allow it to take tactical advantage of market movements.
    • Following are some of the options that the government can explore to raise the required amount.

    1. GDP-linked bonds

    • The GoI may issue listed, Indian rupee-denominated, 25-year GDP-linked bonds that are callable from, say, the fifth year.
    • What GDP-linked means? The coupon (interest) on a GDP-linked bond is correlated to the GDP growth rate and is subject to a cap.
    • The issuer, the GoI, is liable to pay a lower coupon during years of slower growth and vice-versa.
    • The callable feature from the fifth year till maturity allows the GoI to effect partial repayments during high growth years and when it earns non-recurring revenues such as proceeds from disinvestment of public sector enterprises (PSEs).
    • The listing of bonds provides investors with an exit option.
    • Examples from the world: Costa Rica, Bulgaria and Bosnia-Herzegovina issued the first pure GDP-linked bonds in the 1990s.
    • Argentina and Greece issued warrant-like instruments similar to GDP-linked bonds in 2005 and 2012 respectively. India could learn from their experience.
    • Timely GDP data is a prerequisite: Publishing reliable and timely GDP data is a prerequisite for the successful issue of GDP-linked bonds, which the GoI may use to part-finance the COVID-19 rescue package and to diversify its borrowing sources.

    2. Streamlining PSEs

    • The 15 largest non-financial central PSEs (CPSEs) in the S&P BSE CPSE index contributed approximately 75% of the GoI’s ₹48,256.41 crore dividend income from PSEs in FY2020.
    • The Union Budget projected PSE dividends to increase by 25% to ₹65,746.96 crore in FY2021.
    • This milestone is unlikely to be achieved in the current environment.
    • The 15 CPSEs have accumulated sizeable non-core assets including financial investments, loans, cash and bank deposits in excess of their operating requirements, and real estate.
    • The return on these assets (excluding real estate) is around 200 basis points lower than the returns on their core businesses.
    • These CPSEs owe the government ₹25,904 crore as of end-March 2019.
    • These non-core assets must be monetised to repay statutory dues and upstream dividends to GoI.
    • Formation of HOLDCO: While loans and excess cash and bank deposits may be monetised within three months, streamlining investments and selling real estate is a time-consuming process.
    • It is imperative for the GoI to form a PSE and public sector bank holding company (‘Holdco’) along the lines of Singapore’s Temasek Holdings and Malaysia’s Khazanah Nasional Berhad.
    • The Holdco will enable PSEs to monetise their non-core assets at remunerative prices, maximise their enterprise value and focus on their core businesses.
    • The ₹30,168 crore loans that CPSEs have extended to employees, vendors and associates may be securitised or refinanced, with CPSEs guaranteeing loans extended to weak counterparties.
    • Excess liquidity with PSEs: It is essential that businesses maintain liquidity, especially during a downturn. However, the outstanding cash and bank deposits of the 15 CPSEs (₹64,253 crore) is in excess of their operating requirements.
    • CPSEs must determine the cash they require to meet, say, six months of operating expenses and use the excess cash to repay statutory dues and upstream dividends to the GoI.
    • Banks must extend to CPSEs committed lines of credit that the latter may draw down during exigencies.
    • Financial investments of PSEs be transferred to HOLDCO: The 15 CPSEs have accumulated ₹93,562 crore financial investments comprising listed and unlisted debt, equity and mutual fund units.
    • These exclude investments in associates and joint ventures.
    • The CPSEs ought to transfer these investments to Holdco, which can manage the portfolio and transfer the returns to the original investors.
    • Real estate holdings of PSEs: One important non-core asset, whose value is likely to exceed the combined value of other non-core assets, is the real estate holdings of PSEs.
    • In September 2018, the GoI identified properties of nine PSEs (Air India, Pawan Hans, Hindustan Fluorocarbons, Hindustan Newsprint, Bharat Pumps & Compressors, Scooters India, Bridge and Roof Co, Hindustan Prefab, and Projects & Development India) to be divested.
    • The GoI must mandate all PSEs and government departments to transfer their non-core properties to Holdco, which can opportunistically sell these properties and transfer the proceeds to the owners.

    Refrain from asking RBI to pay more dividend

    • The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has allocated ₹1 lakh crore to carry out long-term repo operations in tranches and has reduced the repo rates by 75 basis points to 4.4% to help banks augment their liquidity in the wake of the pandemic.
    • Recognising the RBI’s liquidity requirements, the GoI must refrain from asking the RBI to pay more dividends that it can viably pay.
    • During the five years ending on June 30, 2019, the RBI paid the GoI 100% of its net disposable income, with its FY2019 dividends more than trebling to ₹1.76 lakh crore from ₹50,000 crore in FY2018.
    • The Bimal Jalan panel constituted in 2019 to review the RBI’s economic capital framework opined that the RBI may pay interim dividends only under exceptional circumstances and that unrealised gains in the valuation of RBI’s assets ought to be used as risk buffers against market risks and may not be paid as dividends.

    Conclusion

    The Bimal Jalan panel recommendation must be adhered to in letter and spirit. The GoI may finance the COVID-19 rescue package by issuing GDP-linked bonds, tapping PSEs’ excess liquidity and monetising non-core assets.

  • Needed, greater decentralisation of power

    Context

    Even as States have taken up positions of leadership in the pandemic response, federal limitations are becoming hurdles.

    State governments at the position of leadership

    • In the fight against the pandemic, one of the striking features of governance has been the signal role played by State Chief Ministers across India.
    • Proactive measures: Even before the Union government invoked the Disaster Management Act, 2005, many State governments triggered the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897, and installed a series of measures to combat what was then an oncoming onslaught of COVID-19.
    • These actions have not always been perfect. Some of them have even disproportionately trenched upon basic civil liberties.
    • But, by and large, they have been tailored to the reality faced on the ground by the respective governments.
    • Policies to address local concerns: States such as Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and Karnataka have shaped their policies to address their direct, local concerns.
    • They have communicated these decisions to the public with clarity and consideration, helping, in the process, to lay out a broad framework for the nation.
    • Not just the laboratories of democracy: In doing so, they have acted not merely as “laboratories of democracy”, to paraphrase the former U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, but also as founts of reasoned authority.

    Federal arrangements placing limitations on the states

    • Equally, though, as much as State governments have taken up positions of leadership, they have repeatedly found themselves throttled by the limitations of the extant federal arrangement.
    • The Centre for Policy Research has pointed out at least three specific limitations.
    • Funds and structuring own package: The inability of States to access funds and thereby structure their own welfare packages.
    • Curbs imposed by PFMS: The curbs imposed by a public finance management system (PFMS) that is mired in officialdom.
    • This has prevented States from easily and swiftly making payments for the purchase of health-care apparatus such as ventilators and personal protective equipment.
    • Disruption of supply chains: Three, the colossal disruption of supply chains not only of essential goods and services but also of other systems of production and distribution, which has placed States in a position of grave economic uncertainty.
    • Need to decentralise: As these limitations demonstrate an urgent need to decentralise administration, where States — and local bodies acting through such governments — are allowed greater managerial freedom.
    • Under such a model, the Union government will command less but coordinate more.

    Indian federalism-two distinct levels

    • There are varying accounts of what Indian federalism truly demands.
    • Two levels: What is manifest from a reading of the Constitution is that it creates two distinct levels of government: one at the Centre and the other at each of the States.
    • The Seventh Schedule to the Constitution divides responsibilities between these two layers.
    • The Union government is tasked with matters of national importance, such as foreign affairs, defence, and airways.
    • But the responsibilities vested with the States are no less important. Issues concerning public health and sanitation, agriculture, public order, and police, among other things, have each been assigned to State governments.
    • In these domains, the States’ power is plenary.
    • This federal architecture is fortified by a bicameral Parliament.
    • Significantly, this bicameralism is not achieved through a simple demarcation of two separate houses, but through a creation of two distinct chambers that choose their members differently-
    • A House of the People [Lok Sabha] comprising directly elected representatives and a Council of States [Rajya Sabha] comprising members elected by the legislatures of the States.

    Financial autonomy of the states

    • Ensuring financial autonomy: In formulating this scheme of equal partnership, the framers were also conscious of a need to make States financially autonomous.
    • No overlap: To that end, when they divided the power to tax between the two layers of government they took care to ensure that the authority of the Union and the States did not overlap.
    • Therefore, while the Centre, for example, was accorded the power to tax all income other than agricultural income and to levy indirect taxes in the form of customs and excise duties, the sole power to tax the sale of goods and the entry of goods into a State was vested in the State governments.
    • The underlying rationale was simple: States had to be guaranteed fiscal dominion to enable them to mould their policies according to the needs of their people.

    History of paradox in federal system of India

    • Despite this plainly drawn arrangement, the history of our constitutional practice has been something of a paradox.
    • It is invariably at the level of the States that real development has fructified.
    • But the Union has repeatedly displayed a desire to treat States, as the Supreme Court said in R. Bommai v. Union of India, as mere “appendages of the Centre”.
    • Time and again, efforts have been made to centralise financial and administrative power, to take away from the States their ability to act independently and freely.
    • Following five examples demonstrated that the point made here.

    1 Matters of finance-what was expected in theory did not realise

    • Consider the widely hailed decision to accept the 14th Finance Commission’s recommendation for an increase in the share of the States in total tax revenues from 32% to 42%.
    • While, in theory, this ought to have enabled the States to significantly increase their own spending, in reality, as a paper authored by Amar Nath H.K. and Alka Singh of the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy suggests, this has not happened.
    • What went wrong? Gains made by the States, as the paper underlines, have been entirely offset by a simultaneous decline in share of grants and by a concomitant increase in the States’ own contribution towards expenditures on centrally sponsored schemes.

    2. Goods and Service Tax

    • The decline in the sovereignty of the states: Notably, the creation of a Goods and Services Tax regime, which far from achieving its core purpose of uniformity has rendered nugatory the internal sovereignty vested in the States.
    • By striking at the Constitution’s federal edifice, it has made the very survival of the States dependent on the grace of the Union.
    • The tension today is so palpable that a number of the States are reported to have written to the Union Finance Ministry.
    • More than four months’ worth of Goods and Services Tax compensation to the States — reportedly totalling about a sum of ₹40,000 crore — remains unreleased.

    3. Passing a bill as a money bill

    • The Union government’s centralising instinct, though, has not been restricted to matters of finance.
    • It has also introduced a slew of legislation as money bills, in a bid to bypass the Rajya Sabha’s sanction, even though these laws scarcely fit the constitutional definition.

    4. Role of the Governors

    • Similarly, the role of the Governors has been weaponised to consolidate political power.

    5. Article 370

    • But perhaps most egregious among the moves made is the gutting of Article 370 and the division of Jammu and Kashmir into two Union Territories.
    • It was done without securing consent from the State Legislative Assembly.

    Conclusion

    Perhaps a crisis of the kind that COVID-19 has wrought will show us that India needs greater decentralisation of power; that administration through a single central executive unit is unsuited to its diverse and heterogeneous polity. We cannot continue to regard the intricate niceties of our federal structure as a nettlesome trifle. In seeing it thus, we are reducing the promise of Article 1 of the Constitution, of an India that is a Union of States, to an illusory dream.

  • Is e-NAM portal capable of supporting farmers?

    Context

    • The union government has launched new features in electronic agriculture market platform (e-NAM), to decongest wholesale markets amid coronavirus threat.
    • Whether these features would solve the problems of farmers is a matter of question.

    What is e-NAM?

    • eNAM platform is an online trading platform for agricultural commodities in India.
    • It was launched on April 14, 2016 as a pan-India electronic trade portal linking agricultural produce market committees (APMCs) across all states.
    • It facilitates farmers, traders and buyers with online trading in commodities.
    • It helps in better price discovery and provides facilities for smooth marketing of their produce.

    Trading on e-NAM

    • Over 90 commodities including staple food grains, vegetables and fruits are currently listed in its list of commodities available for trade.
    • The farmer needs to upload details of his produce and a photo of the harvest on the platform.
    • It actually provided for evaluation and grading of produce.

    Why farmers don’t prefer e-NAM?

    • Lack of internet connectivity is another issue impeding progress.
    • Farmers feel more comfortable with physical trading rather than going online as they face issues with transportation for their produce.
    • Only 8.42 per cent of the total mandis are connected through the e-NAM platform.

    Issues with grading

    • There are no scientific sorting/grading facilities or quality testing machines.
    • The grading process makes farmers bring a sample of their produce that is evaluated and graded by agricultural assessors.
    • A report on the sample can be accessed by any buyer in any state before making the purchase, once graded by assessors.
    • The government realized the complexities allowed for gradation from a warehouse nearest to them and farmers need not commute to a mandi from remote areas.
    • It is, however, still not clear whether produce can be graded at the warehouse or not.

     

  • India COVID-19 Emergency Response and Health System Preparedness Package

    The Centre has approved a centrally funded ‘India COVID-19 Emergency Response and Health System Preparedness Package’ with the objective of strengthening national and state health systems.

    About the Package

    • The package is 100 per cent centrally funded project under the National Health Mission.
    • It will be implemented in three phases from January 2020 to March 2024.
    • It aims at strengthening national and state health systems to support prevention and preparedness, procurement of essential medical equipment, consumables and drugs, etc.
    • The three phases of the project are Phase – 1 from January 2020 to June 2020, the second phase is from July 2020 to March 2021 and the third phase from April 2021 to March 2024.

    What are the major activities planned under this package?

    • The key activities to be implemented under Phase -1 includes support to states/UTs for the development of dedicated COVID-19 hospitals and other hospitals, isolation blocks, negative pressure isolation rooms, ICUs with ventilators, the oxygen supply in hospitals etc..
    • The central package will also assist the state/ UTs for the Procurement of Personal Protection Equipment (PPE), N95 masks and ventilators, over and above what is being procured and supplied by the govt.
    • The activities under the first phase also include the disinfection of hospitals, government ambulances, etc.

  • [pib] Chitra Acrylosorb Secretion Solidification System

    Scientists at Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST) have designed and developed a highly efficient superabsorbent material for liquid respiratory and other body fluid solidification and disinfection for the safe management of infected respiratory secretions.

     Chitra Acrylosorb Secretion Solidification System

    • It is a highly efficient superabsorbent material for liquid respiratory and other body fluid solidification and disinfection.
    • AcryloSorb can absorb liquids at least 20 times more than its dry weight and also contains a decontaminant for in situ disinfection.
    • Containers filled with this material will immobilize the contaminated fluid by solidifying it (gel-like), thus avoiding spillage and will also disinfect it.
    • The canister containing the solidified waste canister can then be decomposed as all other biomedical waste by incineration.

    How it works?

    • In the developed system, suction canisters, disposable spit bags have been designed with “AcryloSorb” technology.
    • They are lined inside with the AcryloSorb material.
    • The AcryloSorb suction canisters will collect the liquid respiratory secretions from ICU patients or those with copious secretions treated in the wards.
    • The container will be spill-proof and can be sealed after use, making it safe and fit for disposal through the usual incineration system for biomedical wastes.

    Significance of Acrylosorb

    • Sealable and disposable spit bags can be provided for solidifying the sputum and saliva of ambulant patients with respiratory infections, which can then be incinerated.
    • Thus it reduces the risk for the hospital staff, the need for personnel for disinfecting and cleaning the bottles and canisters for reusing them and makes the disposal safer and easier.

  • [pib] Integrated Government Online Training (iGOT)

    The Union govt. has launched a training module for management of COVID-19 named ‘Integrated Government Online training’ (iGOT) on DIKSHA platform of MHRD.

    About iGOT

    • It is training module for management of COVID-19 on DIKSHA platform for the capacity building of frontline workers to handle the COVID-19 pandemic efficiently.
    • Courses on iGOT have been launched specially for Doctors, Nurses, Paramedics, Hygiene Workers, Technicians, Auxiliary Nursing Midwives (ANMs), State Government Officers, Civil Defence Officers, Various Police Organisations.
    • They are also available to NCC corps, Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS), NSS volunteers, Indian Red Cross Society, Bharat Scouts and Guides and other volunteers at the stage.

    Back2Basics: DIKSHA Portal

    • HRD ministry has launched Diksha Portal (diksha.gov.in) for providing a digital platform to a teacher to make their lifestyle more digital.
    • It aims to serve as National Digital Infrastructure for Teachers.
    • The portal will cover the whole teacher’s life cycle – from the time they were enrolled as student teachers in Teacher Education Institutes (TEIs) to after they retire as teachers.
    • It will enable, accelerate and amplify solutions in the realm of teacher education. It will aid teachers to learn and train themselves for which assessment resources will be available.

  • [pib] Kendriya Bhandar

    Kendriya Bhandar which functions under the Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT) has taken the unique initiative of providing “Essentials Kits” to needy families during the ongoing lockdown.

    About Kendriya Bhandar

    • The Central Govt. Employees Consumer Cooperative Society Ltd. is popularly known as Kendriya Bhandar.
    • It was set up in 1963 as a welfare project for the benefit of Central Govt. employees and public at large.
    • It is functioning under aegis of Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions and was registered with Delhi Registrar of Cooperative Societies.
    • Subsequently, it was registered with Central Registrar of Cooperative Societies, Govt. of India as a Multi-State Consumer Cooperative Society in September 2000.

  • [Prelims Spotlight] Important IR Terms in News

    Prelims Spotlight is a part of “Nikaalo Prelims 2020” module. This open crash course for Prelims 2020 has a private telegram group where PDFs and DDS (Daily Doubt Sessions) are being held. Please click here to register.

    Important IR Terms in News

    9 April 2020

    APC Network: Association for Progressive Communications comprises more than 20,000 subscribers to electronic listservers in 95 countries, and have recently been very much involved in agitating for global development and democratization of the United Nations

    Balance of payments: The net flow of goods, services and financial transactions that takes into account outflows and inflows of money from a state

    Balance of payments deficit: a state spends more than it receives from other countries

    Balance of payments surplus: a state receives more than it spends in other countries

    Balance of power: a condition in which the distribution of military and political forces among nations means no one state is sufficiently strong to dominate all the others. It may be global, regional or local in scope

    Bargaining power: the general capacity of a state to control the behaviour of others, power to cause another actor to do an action (also see structural power)

    Biodiversity: two kinds: species and genetic diversity, species diversity refers to the differences between species, while genetic diversity refers to differences within species

    Brezhnev Doctrine: reinforced the right of the Soviets to intervene where Moscow deemed socialism was threatened by ‘counter-revolutionary forces’

    Brundtland Commission Report: published 1987, commissioned 1983 with Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway, as commissioner, a mandate was to look into the alarming rate at which environmental resources were being consumed,  the levels of their waste, particularly in the case of development, at the ways in which developing countries were falling further and further behind the industrialized world in their standards of living, coined term ‘sustainable development’

    Cold War: The period in world affairs from c.1947-1990, marked by ideological, economic and political hostility and competition between the US and the Soviet Union, and drawing in other powers at various levels of involvement

    Common unit of exchange: a currency in which international economic exchanges are valued

    Comparative advantage: Doctrine says that states should 1) produce and export whatever they can produce most efficiently relative to other states i.e., whatever they have a comparative advantage in; and they should 2) import those things they can’t produce as efficiently from states that can

    Concert of Europe: the informal system of consultation set up by the Great Powers (Austria, Britain, France, Prussia and Russia) to manage the balance of power at the end of the Congress system

    Conflict: perceived rival and incompatible claims over some desired “good”

    Congress of Vienna: meeting of the four main victors over Napoleon and France: Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia.

    Containment: policy pursued by the US toward the Soviet Union c. 1947-1989, the aim of which was to deny Moscow opportunities to expand its political influence abroad, to draw a line and contain the Soviets within their borders, (also see Truman Doctrine )

    CSCE: Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, from 1973-75 all European states (except Albania) plus the US and Canada met to discuss regional security (now the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, and one of the central security organizations in Europe

    D5: denuclearization, demilitarization, dealignment, democratization, and development, five main goals of peace and social movements

    Defence strategy: involves the assumption that war will be fought with three aims in mind: 1. to punish the aggressor 2. to deny territorial gains 3. to limit the damage to oneself (also see deterrence)

    Deterrence: efforts of an actor to dissuade the opponent from doing something considered against the actor’s interests by making the costs of action outweigh the benefits with the threat of punishment, the implicit or explicit purpose of this strategy was to avoid actually fighting the war (also see defence)

    The Doctrine of Flexible Response: a nuclear utilization strategy which legitimized the notion of limited nuclear war, involved two dimensions: limited targetting (‘counterforce strategy’) and the use of battlefield nuclear weapons (also see MAD)

    Dollar overhang: the amount of US dollars overseas exceeded US reserves of gold, undermining dollar convertibility to gold

    Ethnic group: a group of people who define themselves as distinct from other groups because of cultural differences

    Eurodollar markets: free market where buyers and sellers exchange currencies outside of their country of origin

    Exchange rate: value at which one currency is traded for another

    Fixed exchange rate: the rate of exchange of a currency or currency is set by agreement between governments or by government policy (see also gold standard)

    Floating exchange rate: the rate of exchange of currencies is permitted to rise and fall with supply and demand on the international private market

    Free trade: means the buying or selling of goods and services across international borders with few or no restrictions (see also protectionism)

    Fungibility: the extent to which one form of power can be converted into another

    GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, drawn up in 1947 to codify the rules of conduct in trade for its members, in the GATT, states agreed to negotiate “reciprocal and mutually advantageous arrangements directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade” and to increase free and fair trade

    Glasnost: ‘openness’, a term introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev about his post-1985 opening of Soviet society to dissidents, public criticism and limited admission of past Soviet mistakes (also see perestroika)

    Gold standard: the value of a currency is fixed relative to an amount of gold, can be converted to gold at a fixed rate (see also fixed exchange rates)

    GSP: Generalized System of Preferences: early 1970’s nineteen advanced industrial states agreed to eliminate tariffs on manufactured and semi-manufactured goods exported by 140 LDCs unilaterally for ten years, renewed during 1980s for another decade (see UNCTAD, IPC)

    Holy Roman Emperor: the supreme secular authority in Medieval Europe

    Hugo Grotius (1583-1645): the ‘father’ of international law, a Dutch jurist, humanist and diplomat His great work ‘On the Law of War and Peace’ is widely regarded as a landmark in the development of international law

    HYV’s: high-yielding varieties of agricultural plants, genetically designed to produce higher quantities of product with the aid of fertilizer, pesticides, and mechanized agricultural methods

    ICBM’s: inter-continental ballistic missiles

    IPC: Integrated Programme for Commodities, concerted attempt to control price fluctuations in commodities on which LDC’s depended for foreign exchange income (see UNCTAD, GSP)

    LDC: Less Developed Country

    MAD: Mutually Assured Destruction, a strategic doctrine which guarantees that each side in a nuclear exchange would survive a first strike by its opponent with enough arms intact to launch a second-strike sufficient to destroy the aggressor (also see Doctrine of Flexible Response)

    massive retaliation: a nuclear strategy which calls for a nuclear response to any aggressive action

    MFN: Most Favoured Nation: every member is treated as well as the “most favoured one”: ie: if U.S. offers low tariff to Canada on ice cubes: every other GATT member is entitled to the same treatment (see also free trade, GATT)

    MIRV’S: multiple independently targetted re-entry vehicles (see also ICBM’S)

    monetarism: a policy of manipulating the money supply (inflating or deflating a currency) to influence economic growth

    monoculture: refers to the use of one genetic strain of plant or animal to replace a diversity of strains

    Multiple-sum game: both actors can mutually gain (also see zero sum game)

    Natural law: the idea there existed rights and duties attached to human beings as such that existed in all times and all places, that could be discovered by reason, and that should be applied in the relations between groups

    Negative peace: the absence of war and physical (direct) violence (also see positive peace)

    Netwar: the primary objective of “netwar” is to use computer networks and databases to inflict cultural and political damage to the international image of the opponent.

    News values: the criteria for determining what kinds of stories are reported; used to identify, define and present a story

    NIEO: United Nations Resolution of May 1974 for a New International Economic Order to address concerns of LDC’s

    Non-Aligned Movement: loose organization of Third World countries which dealt with statements on a wide variety of issues from nuclear proliferation to trade and development, first meeting: Bandung, Indonesia, 1955, led by a few relatively strong, independent personalities: Tito, Nehru, and Nasser (Yugoslavia, India, Egypt) (see also UNCTAD, NIEO)

    Non-governmental organization (NGO): any private organization involved in activities that have transnational implications
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    Nuclear fusion: relies on forcing two hydrogen atoms together, and in the process destroying some extra matter that is converted into energy (called H-bomb)

    NWIO: New World Information and Communication Order, begun in the 1970s around the same time as the Group of 77 launched its drive for a NIEO, called for a more balanced flow of communications globally, development of communication infrastructure in LDC’s, control or elimination of information monopolies, and respect for each people’s cultural identity

    OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, organization of 29 industrialized countries

    OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Companies: A cartel of oil producers formed to control the price and supply of oil on world markets

    Perestroika: ‘restructuring’, a term used by Mikhail Gorbachev to describe his plans to reform, modernize and partly decentralize the Soviet economy (also see glasnost)

    Positive peace: the absence of structural violence as well as direct violence (see also negative peace)

    Protectionism: protecting your economy from the international economy by imposing various restrictions on the flow of imports or exports of goods or services into or out of your country (see also free trade)

    Reserve currency: a currency that countries hold in reserve because of its strength and stability

    Security dilemma: a situation in which states’ actions taken to assure their own security, tend to threaten the security of other states

    Self-help: necessity to rely on a the states’ own resources and capabilities

    SLBM’s: submarine-launched ballistic missiles

    specie money: solid money (gold or silver, traditionally)

    spheres of influence: an area declared by a Great Power to be its exclusive area of interest, where it acts to defend its dominance and to exclude other Great Powers.

    SOP’s: standard operating procedures

    Sovereignty: means a government has the right, at least in principle, to do whatever it liks in its own territory (also see state)

    Structural power: the power to change the rules of the game for others, the power to structure the choices of other actors

    Structural violence: latent or hidden forms of social conflict

    Stockholm Conference: UN Conference on the Human Environment, held 1972, was first worldwide environmental conference in history

    Sustainable development: term coined by Brundtland Commission Report 1987, defined as development which can “ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

    Terms of trade: the ratio in prices between a country’s exports and its imports

    Truman Doctrine: a promise of US aid to all ‘free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside powers” (also see Brezhnev Doctrine)

    UNCED: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio 1992. Effort by the int. Community to reach consensus on principles and a long-term workplan for global sustainable development, major output was Agenda 21 (referring to the Twenty-First Century), a global plan of action containing 294 pages encompassing every sectoral environmental issues as well as international policies affecting both environment and development and the full range of domestic social and economic policies.

    UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: formed 1964: First Secretary General Raul Prebisch: called for reform of the system of international trade based on liberalism and comparative advantage, in order to assist the development of poor countries, included calls for a GSP and IPC (see also NIEO)

    War: legitimate use of organized violence or force to achieve “goods” (also see conflict)

    zero-sum game: one actors’ gain is another’s loss

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