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What will happend when special status given for all states

Areas of Interest – North, South & East India (specifically Kalinga)

 

 

The five centuries that passed between the fall of the Mauryas and rise of the Guptas witnessed a lot of political instability and upheaval in the North of India. The South however remained fairly stable.

NORTH INDIA

I. Political Background

As the maps suggest, many kingdoms came up in North India. Despite being foreign rulers, they were assimilated in our culture and influenced it in many ways. The 3 most important among them were

1. Sunga Empire (185BCE–73 BCE) – East India

They succeeded the Mauryan Empire in Magadha. Pushyamitra Sunga was the first king of this dynasty.

2. Indo-Greek Kingdom (180BCE – 010AD) – North West India

The Greeks were the first foreign power in the sub-continent. After Alexander left, his generals stayed back. Hence the term Indo-Greek. They brought the Greek culture. Menander(165-145 BC) was the most important king in this time. In Pali Literature he is known as Milinda.

3. Indo-Scythian or Sakas (200 BC–400 AD) – West India

Sakas or Scythians where nomadic Central Asian tribes who destroyed the Indo-Greek rule in north-western India. They were pushed out from Central Asia and came to India. The Sakas were divided in five branches. Around 100AD, they give rise to Kushana Empire and Western Kshatrapas.

 

SL No.	Early	Later (100AD)
1	Afghanistan	Kushanas (60AD–240 AD)
2	Punjab (Taxila)
3	Mathura
4	Maharashtra + Saurashtra	Western Kshatrapa (27 independent) (35AD–405AD)
5	Central India (Ujjain)

 

Kanishka is the most celebrated king of Kushana empire. At its peak, his empire extended from Khotan in the northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south. The capital of his empire was Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar.

 

II. Literature

Many important works of literature happened in this era.

Work	Author	Theme	Patronage
Junagarh Rock inscription	Rudradaman I from the Western Kshatrapa	He’s credited to have issued the 1st long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. It mentions the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudershana Lake. Junagarh Rock also contains inscriptions from Ashoka and Skandgupta (from the Gupta Period almost 800 years later).	Rudradaman I
Milindapanho	Nagasena	Menander asked Nagasena many questions related to philosophy and Buddhism, which together with Nagasena’s answers are recorded in Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda.	Milinda
Saundarananda, Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi	Ashvaghosh	Buddhacharita is a complete lifecof Buddha written in the form of Mahakavya. It is the first Buddist book written in Sanskrit.	Kanishka
Charaka-Samhita	Charaka	Extends Ayurveda and lays down the concept of balance of 3 doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha.
Sushruta-Samhita	Sushruta(Father of Surgery)	He mentions more than 120 instruments

 

Junagarh Rock inscription.

 

III. Religion

 

1. Hinduism

Vaishnavism – There were 3 streams centered around worship of Vishnu or Bhagawat

1. Vishnu as a minor god in Vedic times. Was worshipped as the Sun and fertility cult.
2. Narayana was a non-vedic tribal god. He was also called bhagavat.
3. Vishnu came to be identified as the hero of the vrishni tribe known as Krishna-Vasudeva.

By 200BC all these 3 streams merged into one and led to the creation of Bhagvatism. By the end of late Gupta Period, it’s assimilated into Vaishnavism and was commonly referred by the latter.

2. Buddhism

Buddhism continued to receive royal patronage. Many kings of this era were Buddhists. Kanishka’s court was adorned by the presence of such scholars as Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna.

A major development in Buddhism was it’s splitting up in to two sects –The Hinayana and the Mahayana. Kanishka organized the 4^th Buddhist council where this split happened.

 

Hinayana	Mahayana
Also known as Lesser Vehicle	Greater Vehicle
Treat Buddha has a guide (Since Buddha never said he was God)	Treat Buddha as a God
Worshipped only in form of symbols that represent various stages in the life of Buddha	Worshipped in human form, Bodhisattvas.
Literature only in Pali	Sanskrit

 

This phase also witnessed the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism to south and south east Asia.

 

IV. Architecture

1. Stupas

The Sungas were great patrons of art and architecture. They contributed to the expansion of Bharut and Sanchi Stupas.

Bharhut and Sanchi

	Bharut	Sanchi
Time Period	100 BC is the accepted date for Bharut. Slightly earlier than Sanchi and Ajanta. Said to have been started by Ashoka but much of its work has been done in the time of the Sungas.	100 BC. Said to have been started by Ashoka but much of its work has been done in the time of the Sungas. The decorated gateways with lavish carvings were done by Satavahanas.
Location	Satna District of MP. Was on a major trade route from western coastal regions to Pataliputra.	A very large complex 13-14km from Vidisha, the capital of Mauryan Empire. Vidisha was a very important trading town. It was on the Dakshinapath – an offshoot of the Uttarapath, which connected Taxila to Pataliputra and further east.
Stupa	Has been reconstructed in Indian Museum Calcutta	There are 3 stupas Stupa 1- The Great Stupa. Largest of them. It has 4 gates with Toranas. Stupa 2 – This is the earliest stupa. Same time as Bharut but simpler. Stupa 3 –Has only 1 Torana.

 

Bharut : Themes Represented

Discovered by Cunninghum. Has been reconstructed in Indian Museum Calcutta. Stone Architecture. Surrounded by Vedika roughly 3 feet.

 

Only 1 Torana has been found but it is suspected that there would’ve been 4.

As evident, the Vedika and Torana have beautiful carvings. They are 5 elements –

1. Visual narratives about the life of Buddha

Buddha is represented in his iconic form – feet, bodhi tree, dharmachakra, empty seat and not the human form (symbolizing the Theravadin/ Hinayana Buddhism).

2. Jataka Kathas

Jatakas Stories like the Kaka Jataka(Monoscenic), Ruru Jataka

3. Yakshas and Yakshis

These gods of local cults start assimilating into Buddhism. It is believed that Yakshis were made through the contributions of women.

4. Medallions

There are also medallions like the one shown below. They represent the sun god, various bodhisattvas, etc.

Sanchi : Themes Represented

Sanchi Complex has 3 stupas. Follow the Map below.

Stupa No. 1 is the largest and is called the Great Stupa. It has 4 gates with Toranas. In the pic, you see the Northern Gate.

There are extensive carvings on the Torana. The themes are similar to those of Bharut.

 

Stupa 2 – This is the earliest stupa. Same time as Bharut but simpler.

Stupa 3 –Has only 1 Torana.

 

 

2. Pillars

 

1. Heliodorus Pillar

• Stone column erected by Heliodorus, Greek ambassador to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra, around 150BC
• In honor of Vasudeva.

 

V. Independent Art

 

A. Sunga Art

-Standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis, discovered from Gwalior and Mathura

-Dwarfish Yaksha from the Pithalkhora caves in Central India

 

B. The Gandhara School and the Mathura School of Art

This period saw the emergence to two very important schools of art – one in Gandhara, North West Frontier Province and the other in Mathura.

The Gandhara Art received patronage from various dynasties – Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan Kings. It was during Kanishka’s reign that both these centers flourished.

 

Gandhara	Mathura
Strong Greek influence and was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art. Assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark of the Gandhara style.	No foreign Influence, however, later it cross fertilized with the Gandhara School. Its development took place indigenously.Initially inspired by Yaksha Images
Blue-grey Mica / Grey Sandstone.	Spotted Red Sandstone
Rendering of drapery with sharp flowing folds similar to those shown in Roman togas. Finer details and realistic images. Buddha carved out in various Mudras. Wavy curled hair.	Early period: Light volume having fleshy body. Later Period: Flashiness reduced. Not much attention to detailed sculpting.
Halo not decorated. Images are very expressive.	The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated. Images less expressive.
Mainly Buddhism	All religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism

 

Gandhara School : Themes represented

Buddha is depicted standing frontally with one leg bent.

Greek Deities

Zeus Apollo, Athena indicating the Greeks wanted to preserve their culture.

Portraits of Kings

Other Sites

 

Mathura School – Themes represented

The Buddhist religion greatly flourished under the patronage of Kushan emperors, and several images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas were produced after the earlier Yaksha types.

The first purely Indian Style art and sculptures were produced here. Mathura Art is famous for its iconographic traits – identification of particular deities based on the postures, attributes, vehicles.

Common Facial Features – Oval/ Roundish faces, open eyes, thick lips and sharp nose.

Fleshy full-body figures in a number of postures. Female figures are voluptuous, heavy round breasts, narrow waist. Male figures are shown with a slight V shape.

i. Buddhism

Buddha seen in Abhaymudra with one hand raised.

ii. Jainism

Mathura also becomes an important center of Jainism. A new kind of worshipping develops in this era – that of the Ayagapattas. The Jains produced votive tablets called ayagapattas that contain auspicious marks of worship such as fish couple or matsya yugala, the swatiska, etc.

Jain Ayagapattas with a Tirthankara at the middle.

 

iii. Shaivism

Various Shaiva images have been found from the region though their numbers are limited.

• Chaturmukhalinga.

• Karttikeya-Skanda

iv. Vaishnavism

• Balarama is shown with a snake canopy . Sometimes he carries a lion-staff plough.

v. Local Cults

Naga Cult is very prominent. A lot of Naga Temples have been found in/around this area.

 

vi. Statue of Kanishka

Last but not the least, we have the statue of Kanishka.

 

 

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SOUTH INDIA

I. Political Background

In the south, the Sangam Period starts (circa 300BC – 300AD). We see the emergence for 3 main kingdoms

1. Cholas – Kaveri Delta

2. Cheras – Kaveri Karoor

3. Pandya – Vagai, Madhurai

 

In the Deccan, the Satvahanas declare themselves as independent after the fall of the Mauryan Empire and emerge as a powerful force. Their kingdom is centered around Aurangabad.

Their 3rd king, Satakarni I seems to have performed two Ashvamedhayajna. His achievements are described in detail in the Nanaghat Inscription. Referred to as lord of Dakshinapatha.

The strongest Satvahana ruler – Gautamiputra Satakarni carried out expeditions against the Saka rulers and drove them out of Maharashtra. His achievements are recorded in Nasik inscription. By 225 AD, the Satvahanas are replaced by Ikshwaku (refer map).

 

II. Literature

A. Sangam Literature

South sees the emergence of Tamil Language. For the first time we come to know of life in South India using literature. Sangam means assembly of scholars. Each Sangam consisted of a number of distinguished poets and erudite scholars who selected the best ones from amongst the works submitted to them. Many female authors seem to have contributed.

The Sangam classics, consisting of 18 works (8 anthologies of lyrics and 10 long poems), are well known for their directness of expression. The eight anthologies called the Ettuttogai are considered to be the earliest work belonging to the BC 300. The 10 poems called Pattupattu. They are divided in to

1) Aham deals purely with the subjective emotions of the lover.

2) Puram deals with objective emotions, mainly the valour and glory of kings, good and evil.

 

Some important works Sangam works are as follows –

 

Name	Author	Notes
Thirukkural	Thiruvalluvar	Serves as a manual of precepts to guide one to noble living
Agattiyam	Agathiyar	The first known book on Tamil grammar, believed to be lost beyond redemption.
Tolkāppiyam	Tolkappiyar	Work on the grammar of the Tamil language and the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature and Linguistics. It talks of Thinai(explained below)

 

Thinai : Another fascinating aspect of Sangam literature is its reference to 5 landscapes(eco-zones) and people associated with them known as Thinai.

 

Ecozone as mentioned in Sangam Literature	Refers to	Associated human settlement
Marudam	Agricultural lands, Plains	Peasants, farmers
Mullai	Forest	Pastoral people
Palai	Desert Lands	Bandits, Travellers
Kurunji	Mountains/Hilly Areas	Hill tribes
Neydhal	Coastal Areas	Fishermen

 

B. Tamil Epics outside the Sangam Literature

We have 5 great epics.

No	Name	Author	Notes
1	Silappatikāram	Ilango Adigal	Love story between Kovalan who prefers the courtesan Madhavi of Kaveripattinam over his wife Kannagi.
2	Manimekalai	Cattan	Story of the daughter, Manimekalai, born out of love of Kovalan and Madhavi. There is also an elaborate exposition of the doctrines of Buddhism.
3	Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi		Adopted from Sanskrit Mahapurana, is predominantly sensuous, though Jain philosophy is brought to practical aspects of life
4	Valayapathi
5	Kundalakēci

III. Religion

We see no specific adherence to religion. The Sangam texts were secular in nature(one main reason how they differed from the Vedas)

IV. Architecture

A. Stupas

1. The Amaravati Stupa

Covered with locally available white limestone.

5 pillars at each gateway. These 5 pillars represent the 5 milestones of the life of Buddha (discussed earlier)

Use this tool to explore further – http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/buddha/explore/intro.html.

 

2. Nagarjunakonda Stupa

Built by the successor of Satvahanas, the Ikshwakus. They continuted the great art traditions of Satvahanas.

 

B. Rock-cut caves

1. Karle caves & Bhaja caves

Both caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism.

Karla Cave is the largest Hinayana Buddhist Chaitya in India built during Satavahana’s rule. Karla is the best example of rock-cut architecture, which is believed to carve out from a living rock. Some of its 2000 year-old wooden beams are still alive.

Bhaja caves are also mainly Viharas and Chaityas.

• Noteworthy are the Dampati and the Mithuna figures as also the pairs riding the magnificent elephant crowning the pillars forming imposing colonnades.
• The figures are more than life size and are represented with powerful and muscular physique.

2. Ajanta caves

The earliest group of caves consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. They were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Satavahanas who ruled the region.

Check out our Case Study on Ajanta and Ellora to explore more.

 

V. Independent Art

A. The Amaravati School of Art

• Sculptural form in this area is characterised by intense emotions.
• Figures are slender, have a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi.
• White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. The curly hairs of Buddha is a feature that is influenced by the Greeks.
• In this school, the Kings, Princes, Palaces etc. have got prominence.

 

A relief medallion from Amravati belonging to the 2 century A.D. is a masterly representation of a scene showing the subjugation or taming of Nalagiri, a mad elephant let loose on the Buddha.

 

Carving on outer wall of Amaravati Stupa

A famous carving depicts the adoration of the feet of the Buddha by four women and belongs to the 2nd century A.D. from Amravati.

Three-dimensional space in the relief sculpture is devised by using pronounced volume, angular bodies and complex overlapping.

 

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References and Image credits:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Ashoka_Rock_Edict_at_Junagadh.jpg/440px-Ashoka_Rock_Edict_at_Junagadh.jpg

http://www.madhyapradeshtourism.gov.in/avimage/MapSanchi.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Sanchi_Stupa.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Stupa_3,_Sanchi_01.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Heliodorus_pillar.jpg

http://mw2.google.com/mw-panoramio/photos/medium/79445820.jpg

http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/02545/amaravathi_2545762f.jpg

http://media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/37/74737-004-85754D33.jpg

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/498351514987614297/

http://image.slidesharecdn.com/mauryan-gandhar-gupta-110424184708-phpapp01/95/mauryan-gandhargupta-23-728.jpg?cb=1303672249

http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=251183&partId=1

 

10635Areas of Interest : North India, Central India and South India

 

 

Unlike the previous period, this period saw was marked by political stability that ensured and encouraged cultural florescence. The Guptas and Vakatakas were the major powers in the north and central india respectively.

South however witnessed a transitionary period called the Kalabhra Interregnum.

This transitionary period was known as the ‘Dark Ages’ and lasted for 300 years. Not much is known about this time.

More can be read here – http://www.gloriousindia.com/history/kalabhra_interregnum.html

 

NORTH INDIA

1. Political Background

Gupta Empire extended for close to 300 years – almost twice the duration of Mauryan Empire and 1.5 times the British Empire.

The maps above illustrate how they unified the whole of Northern India by around 480 AD. The Gupta Empire saw many great rulers who patronized art, architecture and science. No wonder it has been referred to as the Golden Age. (this however remains contested as the society in the times of Gupta period showed signs of degeneration).

Finally the Guptas lost out to the Hunas.

 

II. Literature and Language

 

A. Sanskrit

Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas. Needless to say, Classic Sanskrit literature saw tremendous development under their patronage.

Two great epics(Mahakayva), the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were compiled around 4AD. Their importance is as follows

1. They served as a precursor to various other Sanskrit literature
2. They are the origins of many of the stories and anecdotes of the social, religious and cultural history of India.
3. They were translated into various languages that gave them a renewed relevance and meaningful reincarnation.
4. These epics in-turn shaped new languages providing them with substance and style.

Puranas follow on the lines of epics. Some of the earlier Puranas were compiled in this era. There are 18 Mahapuranas and 19 Upa-puranas.

The Puranas were associated with revivalism of Hinduism. They were in the form of stories which made them more palatable to masses than the earlier bramanical text – the Vedas.

Besides the epics, this period also saw the development of kavya (poetry), nataka (drama) and other literature.

Two things can be noted about plays

1. They do not come across tragedies.
2. Characters of high social status speak Sanskrit: whereas those of lower status and women speak Prakrit. This particular feature throws light on the status of Sanskrit and Prakrit in society.

The table below summarizes the important works of this time.

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Allahabad Prasasti	Harisena	An inscription. The Allahabad Pillar also has inscriptions by Ashoka and Mughal Emperor Jahangir	Eulogy on the conquests of Samudragupta. Inscribed on the Allahabad Pillar	Samudragupta
Kumarasambhava	Kalidas	Mahakavya(epic poem)	An epic poem depicting birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati
Raghuvamsa			Geneology of Lord Rama. The Ikshvakus are also known as Raghuvanshis hence the name.
Malavikagnimitra		Play	Story of love between Agnimitra, the Sunga Prince and the hand-maiden of his chief queen, Mālavikā. Also gives an account of his father Pushyamitra Sunga’s Rajasuya Yagna.
Vikramorvasiya			It’s a Sanskrit drama depicting the love story of Puruvas, a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect the qualities of Chandragupt Vikramaditya.
Abhigyana Shakuntala			A sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.
Ritusamhara		Lyrical Poetry	A mini epic poem on six seasons (Ritu). Considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.	Chandragupta II
Meghaduta		Lyrical Poetry	Cloud is a messenger. An exiled yaksha who is pining for his beloved on a lonely mountain peak. When, at the beginning of a monsoon, a cloud perches on the peak, he asks it to deliver a message to his love in the Himalayan city of Alaka.	Chandragupta II
Mricchakatika	Sudraka	Plays	Mrichhakatika means a “little clay cart’. Traces the love story of Charudatta with Vasantsena. There is a hindi movie on the same work starring Rekha and Shekhar Suman.
Vinavasavadatta
Padmaprabhritaka			Bhana (short one-act monologue)
Mudrārākṣasa	Vishakhadatta		Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the Demon”. It narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to throne.
Swapnavasavadatta	Bhasa		Vatya King Udayan and his queen Vasavadatta.
Vakyapadiya	Bhartṛhari	Grammar	A treatise on Sanskrit Grammar
Amarakosha	Amarasimha	Grammar	Sanskrit Grammar	Chandragupta II

 

Aryabhatiyam	Aryabhatta	Maths	Also mentions Suryasiddhanta. Aryabhatta is credited with the discovery of algebra. He formulated the area of triangle which led to the origin of Trigonometry. He *did not* invent zero.
Panchasiddhanta	Varahamihira	Astrology	Gives a summary of 5 schools of astrology – Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta. Also discusses concepts of Trigonometry.
Brihatsamhita	Varahamihira	Astrology

 

Note4Students – This information is high priority for prelims. Try to get the correct pronunciation of the texts. Follow the theme to remember their names.

 

III. Religion

A. Hinduism

• Vaishnavism – Bhagavatism had being gaining
• Emergence of Pauranic Hinduism

The brahmanical tradition witnessed a decisive change from what was traditionally practised as “Vedic tradition”. Vedic Brahmanism gave way to Pauranic Hinduism. Sacrifices/ Rituals were not entitrely abandoned but they lost their steam.

Where Vedic Brahmanism was intimately linked with lavish sacrifices and upper varna-jatis, the Pauranic Hinduism became widely popular as it was open to all varna-jatis including Shudras, women etc and encouraged the worship of a personal deity.

Its accesibility lay in performing acts that required little investments – the giving of gifts, keeping of fasts and vows, travelling collectively to places of pilgrimages and subscribing to local mythologies.

B. Buddhism

Buddhism no longer received royal patronage unlike the earlier times. Samudragupta’s permission to the King of Ceylon to erect a magnificent monastery in Bodh-Gaya indicates that Buddhism was given a good patronage.

Nalanda prospered under their patronage.

Post 500AD it saw a new phase in Buddhism marked by the following developments

1. Homogenization with Hinduism: Hindus practiced devotion to Buddha as a reincarnation of Lord Vishnu. In a way, Hinduism went on to assimilate Buddhism as a part/ branch of its own.

2. Humble beginnings of what later comes to be known as tantric Buddhism. The new form of text associated with this tradition, the tantras, appeared during the Gupta period, and there are indications that distinctively Tantric rituals began to be employed at this time as well. Tara is a female Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism who appears as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is known as the “mother of liberation”, and represents the virtues of success in work and achievements.

This will later develop into full fledged Vajrayana cult and reach its peak during the Pala Empire.

C. Jainism

Jainism spread into Gujarat. At Valabhi, took place the compilation of two Jain canonical texts in two councils in 4th and 5th century.

D. Shaktism and Tantrism

Shaktism and Tantrism are closely associated cults. They started as different streams. Shaktism revolves around placing the women at the center. Later this cult starts to be associated with Shaivism, where Shakti is seen as Shivas consort.

The name Tantrism is derived from sacred texts called tantras. The earliest works were written in the Gupta period. In course of time, tantrism manages to penetrate all religion.

 

 

IV. Architecture

 

A. Stupas

1. Dhamekh Stupa

This is the only known example of stupa developed during Gupta era. Originally built in 249 BCE during the reign of king Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty, this massive and prominent structure has over time gone through several expansions and additions. This solid cylindrical shaped Stupa made of red bricks and stone.

 

 

B. Caves

The earliest examples of religious architecture were cave-temples which typically had exteriors decorated with relief sculpture and a single carved doorway.

Inside the shrine, ritual sculptures were placed such as a Shiva linga and the walls were richly decorated with more carvings showing scenes from mythology.

1. Udayagiri Caves

Note4Students – There are a number of places in India with the same name, the most notable being the mountain called Udayagiri at Rajgir in Bihar and the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Orissa. The caves in Orissa correspond to the Jainism.

The Udayagiri caves belonging to the Gupta period are located in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.

There are about 14 caves but you need to focus on only 1 of them: Cave #5 – Dedicated to the Varaha avatar of Vishnu.

This shrine is one of the finest examples of Gupta art, the celebrated relief showing Vishnu in his incarnation as the boar-headed Varaha. Varaha avatar rescued the Earth from the chaos of the cosmic sea.

The scholars say that when Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) renovated the cave in this manner, he wanted to portray the rescue of Northern India from the political instability and fragmentation that it had experienced prior to the rise of the Gupta Empire.

 

 

2. Junagarh Caves

The so-called “Buddhist Caves” are not actually caves, but three separate sites of rooms carved out of stone to be used as monks’ quarters.

Unique feature = Presence of a 30-50 ft high citadel like feature – Upar Kot in front of the prayer hall

3. Bagh Caves:

Located on the bank of Baghani river in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh. These rock cut caves posses the most amazing paintings known to be made by ancient man. According to legend these caves were established by Buddhist monk Dataka. Out of the initial 9 caves only 5 have been extant.

Bagh Caves are known for Mural Paintings – thick mud plaster in brownish orange color. The most famous features of Bagh Caves are these murals made in tempera technique.

http://www.chinkarajourneys.com/uploads/map/Bagh_murial_painting.jpg>

Over this plaster there was done lime-priming and then paintings were laid. This is also known as tempera technique, which refers to use of permanent fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder media.

4. Nasik Caves

http://www.wondermondo.com/Images/Asia/India/Maharashtra/Pand.jpg>

A group of 23 caves, also called as ‘Pandav-Leni’.

These caves belong to the Hinayana Buddhism (have no images of Buddhas)

Contrary to what their name suggests they have nothing to do with the characters of Mahabharata (the Pandavas).

C. Temples

Not satisfied with caves, the Guptas were the first dynasty to build permanent free-standing Hindu temples. This lay the foundation of Nagara School of art. Temple architecture with the development of a square sanctum and pillared portico emerged during the Gupta period.

Among the 5 stages of temple development you will find a gradual progression from flat-roofed, monolithic temples in initial stage to the sculptured ‘shikhara’ in the later years.

Stage #1 – Temple 17, Sanchi & Kankali Temple, Tigwa.

• Flat roof temples
• Square temples
• Shallow pillared approach at the front
• Low platforms

 

Stage #2 – Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, MP

• Continued- Flat roof, square pillared approach (not shallow)
• High or upraised platforms
• Covered ambulatory around the sanctum (garbhagriha) for worshippers to do a parikrama
• Two storied temples (sometimes)

 

Stage #3 – Dashavatara Temple, Deogargh & Durga Temple Aihole, Karnata

• Most of the features of 2nd stage are carried forward
• Flat roof evolved to a curviliniear roof (shikhara)
• Introduction of Panchayatan style of temple making

A hindu temple is a Panchayatana one when the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with by 4 subsidiary shrines at 4 corners making it a total of 5 shrines. The origin of the name are the sanskrit words Pancha (5) et ayatana (containing).

 

Stage #4 – Ter Temple, Sholapur

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Noticable change from square to rectangular shape of the main shrine

 

Stage #5

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections

Stage 3 Temples in detail –

1. Dasavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh

Dasavatara = Das (10) + Avatara (Incarnation). The temple depicts the 10 avataras of Vishnu.

• First North Indian temple with a shikhara.
• Earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India.
• Two river goddesses, the Ganga and Yamuna, are mentioned as attendants of Shiva and this occurs as a regular feature of temple architecture from the doorways of the Dasavatara temple.
• There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls:
  • On the west – Gajendramoksha is the story of achieving moksha, symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s suppression of an asura Who had taken the form of an elephant
  • On the east – Nara-Narayan shows the discussion between the human soul and the eternal divine
  • On the south – The Sheshashayana Vishnu panel is a superb piece of art

• Sheshashayana is the form of Vishnu where he is shown reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta whose seven hoods form a canopy over his crowned head
• His consort Lakshmi is massaging his right leg and two attendant figures stand behind her
• Various gods and celestials are hovering above. Lord Brahma can be seen.
• In the lower panel, the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha, in an attacking attitude, are challenged by the four personified weapons of Vishnu

 

2. Bhitargaon Temple, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

source

• The first full unit temple with a Vimana.
• It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple made entirely of bricks/terracotta.
• The temple is built on a square plan with double-recessed corners and faces east. There tall pyramidal spire over the garbhagriha.
• Terracotta sculpture depicts both secular and religious theme such as deities like ganesha adi virah mahisasaur-mardani and river goddess. Myths and stories representing abduction of Sita and the penance of nara-narayan.

 

3. Ahichhatra Temple (Shiva Temple)

The Shiva temple at Ahichhatra belongs to the Gupta period 4th century A.D. It is famous for its two life-sized terracotta images of Ganga and Yamuna.

Ganga and Yamuna are installed in niches flanking the main steps leading to the upper terrace of the temple.

Ganga stands on her vehicle, the makara. and Yamuna on the kacchap.

 

V. Art

 

A. Sculpture

1. Mathura School

Mathura school also witnessed some development during the Gupta period. A prominent sculpture is Standing Buddha at Matura

• Red sandstone image of the Buddha dated to 500AD
• Right hand in abhayamudra, assuring protection, and the left holding the hem of the garment.
• Smiling countenance with down-cast eyes is robed in spiritual ecstasy
• Robe covering both shoulders is skillfully represented with delicately covered schematic folds and clings to the body
• Head is covered with schematic spiral curls with a central protuberance and the elaborate halo decorated with concentric bands of graceful ornamentation.

 

2. The Sarnath School of Sculpture

The art of Bharhut, Amravati, Sanchi and Mathura came closer and closer; melting into one – The Sarnath School.

Its plasticity is derived from that of Mathura and its elegance from that of Amravati. Plasticity is a term used to describe a rich, three-dimensional or sculptural presence of a building.

The human figure takes center stage and nature becomes the background.

A prominent sculpture is Standing Buddha at Sarnath

• his right hand in abhayamudra.
• Unlike the delicately carved drapery folds of the Mathura Buddha, only the fringe of the diaphanous robe is here indicated.
• The eyes gaze downward, not directly at, but into the viewer
• The very fine high-grade surface seems to have a soft bloom -a specially distinctive Sarnath quality

 

Difference between Sarnath and Mathura School Buddha

Sarnath School	Mathura School
Relaxed attitude in the body of the sculpture. Visible bends	Mathura School had a columnar rigidity in similar works
Very fine draping – almost invisible on the body but left hanging out on the sides	In the Mathura School, the drapes were elaborate and folds were very much visible
The body in its smooth and shining plasticity constitutes the principal theme of the Sarnath artists	Mathura sculpture was more rigid
At Sarnath the material used was cream coloured sandstone	Mathura sculpture was made of moderately fine red sandstone.

Follow the link for more remarkable examples or Sarnath School Sculptures

http://www.sarnathmuseumasi.org/Gallery-No1.aspx

http://varanasi.nic.in/history/ams1.html

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References and image credits:

Mudras – http://www.buddhas-online.com/mudras.html

Timeline-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cz1413OZGb8

http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/indian.html

All aspirants who are giving tomorrow’s test should discuss all there doubts/queries about any question on this thread and not in the comments section of the test

Around 20 questions of the test can be solved using Tikdam method

Tikdams explanations in those selected questions are given in the explanation column itself

By closely observing those questions after every test you will gradually learn the art of Tikdams which will assist you in clearing the UPSC prelims

Highlights of tomorrow’s test:

 

Q.1) The Speaker of the Lok Sabha derives his powers and duties from which of the following

1. Constitution of India

2. Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business of Lok Sabha

3. Parliamentary Conventions

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1 only

b) 1 and 2 only

c) 1 and 3 only

d) 1, 2 and 3

 

Q.2) With reference to GAAR (General Anti Avoidance Rule), consider the following statements:

1. It allows the government to retroactively tax overseas deals involving local assets.

2. J C Shah commission was formed in 2012, for drawing up the final guidelines on GAAR

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 Only

b) 2 Only

c) Both 1 and 2

d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

Q.3) With respect to the earthquakes, consider the following statements:

1. The point inside the earth surface where the energy is released is called the epicentre of an earthquake.

2. The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre.

3. Epicentre is the first point to experience the waves and is a point directly above the focus.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1, 2 and 3

b) 1 and 2 Only

c) 2 and 3 Only

d) 3 Only

 

Q.4) With reference to the ‘Shraman tradition’ of ancient India, consider the following statements:

1. It was originated in Gangetic Valley.

2. Ashoka was famous for patronizing this tradition.

Select the correct option using the codes given below.

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) Both 1 and 2

d) Neither 1 nor 2

Best of luck!

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