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The Peninsular Drainage:

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.

Evolution:

Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India:

• Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period. Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the original watershed and left just the upper parts of west flowing rivers above the sea level.
• Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
• Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from north-west to the southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.

River-Systems:

The peninsular river system can be categorised into the following sections:

• The East flowing rivers – the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths.
• The West flowing rivers:
  • Narmada and Tapi along with other small rivers originating from the Western Ghats and falling in the Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of deltas. This is due to the fact that these rivers, especially Narmada and Tapi, flow through hard rocks and are not able to form distributaries before they enter the sea.
  • Although these west flowing rivers of Sahyadri form only about 3% of the areal extent of basins of India, they contain about 18% of the country’s water resources.

Wondering what is the difference between a delta and an estuary? Let’s see:

Source

Source

• The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as a water divide between the major Peninsular Rivers discharging their water in the Bay of Bengal and the small rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.
• The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river system.
• The Peninsular rivers are characterized by fixed courses, absence of meanders and non-perennial flow of water. The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, however, exceptions.

A brief account of the major Peninsular river systems is given below:

Smaller rivers flowing Towards the West:

The rivers flowing towards the Arabian Sea have short courses ( Because their origins lie closer to the sea, and the Western Ghats act as a water divide). Several of these small rivers are important for the production of hydroelectricity because of steep slopes and waterfalls.

Gujarat:

• The Shetruniji – It rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district.
• The Bhadra – It originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district.
• The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
• Sabarmati
• Mahi

Maharashtra:

• The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district
• The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay.
• The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar and traverses a course of 161 km.
• The Sharavati is another important river in Karnataka flowing towards the west. The Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km. The famous Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289m) made by Sharavati river are the highest untiered waterfalls in India.

Goa:

• Mandovi
• Juari

Kerala:

• Bharathapuzha – It is the largest river of Kerala. It is also known as Ponnani. It originates from Annamalai hills and flows into the Arabian Sea at a place called Ponnani.
• The Periyar – It is the longest and the second largest river of Kerala. [Largeness of a river is related to its basin size and the volume of water flowing in the river. At the same time when we say that a river is the longest, it means that we are referring to its geographical length]
• The Pamba river – It falls in the Vembanad lake.

Small Rivers Flowing towards the East:

There are small rivers which join the Bay of Bengal, though small, these are important in their own right.

• The Subarnrekha
• the Baitarni
• the Brahmani
• the Vamsadhara
• the Penner
• the Palar
• the Vaigai

The Ganga River System

• The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a number of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south, respectively. It accounts for 26.3% of the geographical area of the country and is shared by ten states.
• Ambala is located on the water divide between Indus and Ganga.
• Origin: It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.

• The river-course:
  • The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
  • From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east direction to reach Allahabad. Here it is joined by the Yamuna.
  • Further, near Rajmahal hills, Ganga turns south-east and bifurcates at Farakka into Bhagirathi – Hugli in West Bengal and as the Padma in Bangladesh.
  • The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar Island.

Source

• Important left bank tributaries of the Ganga:
  • Ramganga
  • Gomati
  • Ghaghara
  • Gandak
  • Kosi
  • Mahananda
• Important right bank tributaries of the Ganga:
  • Son
  • Yamuna

Some important tributaries and their characteristic features:

The Brahmaputra River System:

Source

• Origin: The Brahmaputra has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
• The river-course:
  • Most of the course of the Brahmaputra lies in Tibet, popularly known as Tsangpo. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. It receives a large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong.
  • After reaching Namcha Barwa, it takes a “U” turn (also known as Hair Pin turn) and enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh through the deep Dihang or Siang gorge of Himalayas. Here initially it is called as Siang and then as Dihang.
  • It is joined by Dibang, Lohit, Kenula and many other tributaries and finally forms the Brahmaputra in Assam.
  • It then enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Jamuna. [Note: The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga prior to the floods of 1787 after which it diverted its course eastwards to join the Brahmaputra.]
  • The Jamuna and Ganga confluence at Goalundo and afterwards are called as the Padma. Further south, Padma is joined by Meghna (Barak river in India) and thence onward it is known as Meghna to finally merge in the Bay of Bengal.
• It is called:
  • The Tsangpo in Tibet ( Tsangpo = ‘the purifier.’)
  • The Brahmaputra in India
  • The Jamuna in Bangladesh
• Major left bank tributaries:
  • Burhi Dihing,
  • Dhansari (South)
  • Kalang
• Major right bank tributaries:
  • Subansiri ( It has its origin in Tibet and is an antecedent river.)
  • Kameng
  • Manas
  • Sankosh
• Characteristic Features:
  • River Brahmaputra is a little longer than the river Indus.
  • It forms a spectacular Grand Canyon – like canyon in Tibet.
  • The river is nearly 16 km wide at Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the most important of which is Majuli. Majuli is the world’s largest riverine island and India’s first island district.
  • The Brahmaputra has a braided channel. It carries a lot of silt and there is excessive meandering.
  • The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. This is due to the fact that most of its tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.

The Indian Drainage System

The Indian drainage system consists of a large number of small and big rivers.

It is an outcome of:

• The evolutionary process of the three major physiographic units
• The nature and characteristics of precipitation.

Classification of Drainage Systems in India:

1. On the basis of discharge of water – the Arabian Sea drainage and the Bay of Bengal drainage:

On the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), the drainage system of India may be grouped into:

• the Arabian Sea drainage
• the Bay of Bengal drainage

They are separated from each other by the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water divide is shown by a line in the following map).

Source: NCERT

Nearly 77 percent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 percent comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.

1. Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin): When a river does not reach the sea but disappears into the sand, such a region is called an area of inland drainage. Inland drainage streams are ephemeral streams (short-lived). E.g.:

• The Ghaggar river in Haryana, which is supposed to be remnant of the proverbial ancient Saraswati river, gets lost in dry sands near Hanumangarh in Rajasthan.
• The Luni river in Rajasthan originates near Ajmer and after flowing through Thar desert gets lost in the Rann of Kutch.
• The Aksai Chin region in Ladakh too has some inland drainage.

2. On the basis of the size of the watershed:

• Major river basins – with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
• Medium river basins – with catchment area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
• Minor river basins – with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. Km, these include 55 river basins.

3. On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics:

• The Himalayan drainage, and
• The Peninsular drainage.

There is no clear-cut line of demarcation between these two drainage systems, as many of the peninsular rivers like the Chambal, Betwa, Sind, Ken and Son are much older in age and origin than the Himalayan rivers.

Let’s follow this line of classification and look at the drainage system of India in detail. We begin with the Himalayan drainage.

The Himalayan Drainage system:

• It consists of the rivers originating in the Himalayan and trans-Himalayan region. It further consists of three river systems namely:
  • the Ganga,
  • the Indus, and
  • the Brahmaputra river systems.
• Since these are fed both by the melting of snow and precipitation, rivers of this system are perennial.
• The various geographical features made by the Himalayan rivers are:
  • In upper reaches (Youthful stage): Gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls, truncated spurs etc.
  • In plain areas or middle part (Mature stage): While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near the river mouth. Over the plains, they display a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.

Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage System:

There is a difference of opinion about the evolution of the Himalayan Rivers. However, geologists believe that:

1. A mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab during the Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago.

Evidences: The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoint.

2. It is opined that in due course of time Indo–Brahma river was dismembered into three main drainage systems:

• the Indus and its five tributaries in the western part;
• the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part; and
• the stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern part.

The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.

Likewise, the downthrusting of the Malda gap area between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau during the mid-pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

Let’s take up the three major river systems of the Himalayan drainage individually:

1. The Indus River System

• It is one of the largest river basins of the world. A little over one-third of the Indus basin is located in India; in the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. The rest of the portion is in Pakistan.
• The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India.
• Origin: It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Kailash Mountain range (Tibetan region). In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth.
• The river-course:
  • The Indus cuts through Himalayas and enters India near Damchok.
  • flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir.
  • It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region through a deep gorge near the hair-pin bend of Nanga Parbat.
  • It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
• The right-bank tributaries of Indus:
  • Shyok
  • Gilgit
  • Hunza
  • Nubra
  • Kabul
  • Khurram
  • Tochi
  • Gomal
  • Sangar
  • Kunar
• The left-bank tributaries of Indus:
  • Zaskar
  • ‘Panjnad’ joins Indus a little above Mithankot). The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely:
    • Satluj
    • Beas
    • Ravi
    • Chenab
    • Jhelum
  • Chief Characteristics:
    • The Indus drains the largest number of glaciers of Himalayas, Ladakh, Zaskar, and Kailash.
    • The Indus plain has a very gentle slope.

Let’s look at some important tributaries of Indus:

The Indus water treaty:

The waters of the Indus river system are shared by India and Pakistan according to the Indus Water Treaty signed between the two countries on 19th September 1960. According to this treaty, India can utilise only 20 percent of its total discharge of water. The Indus water treaty was recently in news. Remember why? Read here!

Area of interest: North India, Central India, and South India.

After the decline of Harsha’s empire, a number of large states rose in North India, Deccan, and South India. 3 of the most prominent among these were – the Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas.

NORTH INDIA

The political confusion created by the fall of Harshavardhana was resolved with the rise of Gurjara-Pratiharas in Central India and Palas in the East.

I. Political Background

-The Pala empire founded by Gopala around 750 AD. They were majorly a power in Bihar but also ruled over Bengal.

-The Pratiharas ruled from Kanauj and often clashed with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas giving rise to what is known as the ‘tripartite struggle’.

II. Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Ramacharitam	Sandhyakaranandin	Sanskrit Epic poem	Complex composition as each verse offers two meanings. One related to Ramachandra of Ayodhya and the other about Pala ruler Ramapala	Pala Empire

III. Religion

The changes introduced in the preceding era (300 AD – 600 AD) continued.

A. Hinduism

The popularity of Brahmanical bhakti cult increased. Vaishnavism and Saivism rose to popularity due to sustained patronage from dynasties.

B. Buddhism

Hiuen Tsang and Ijing’s accounts testify the decline of Buddhism. However, Buddhism flourished in Eastern India under the Pala and Sena dynasties. Nalanda University and few other universities continued to prosper under their patronage.

Other Famous Buddhist Universities	Location
Vikramasila	Bihar
Odantapuri	Near Nalanda, Bihar
Somapuri	Paharpur, Bangladesh

The above sites were centers of Mahayana Buddhism. With the turn of millennium, new elements to existing Mahayana practices were introduced, namely complex and esoteric Tantric ideas and practices. One major outcome was growing visibility of female deities, particularly Tara in diverse forms. This introduced complex rituals often oriented to sexual practices.

C. Jainism

Not much support was found in the North and Jainism was fading in the North.

IV. Architecture

A. Mahavira in Paharpur, Bengal(now Bangladesh)

• Know for its crucifix (cross shaped) basement plan.

B. Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya

• The temple itself as it stands now is largely a Colonial Period reconstruction of the old 17th century design but many sculptures in the niches in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala Period.
• The first shrine, located at the base of the Bodhi tree, is said to have been constructed by King Ashoka; the vedika around it is said to be post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE;
• Known for its unusual design. It is, strictly speaking, neither Dravida nor Nagara – it is narrow like a Nagara temple, but it rises without curving, like a Dravida one.

C. Monasteries

• Vikramasila university was established by king Dharampal. Nalanda University was renovated. Most of these buildings have vanished.
• The monasteries were imposing rectangular buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which leads into cells, arranged on the four sides.

Nalanda University

Vikramsila University

V. Art

A. Sculptures – Pala School of sculpture

• Derives its features from, both, the Sarnath and the Mathura schools
• Detailed sculptures but delicate ornamentation.
• Back-slabs are a unique feature of the sculptures.
• Has many sub-schools. 2 most important are Nalanda school and Bodhgaya School.

Nalanda School of sculpture

• Art from stucco, stone and metal(most specifically bronze).
• Synthesis between the Sarnath school from the Gupta period and the local bihar tradition.

Nalanda bronzes

• Remarkable bronze is a 4-armed avalokiteshwara which is a good eg. of male form in tribhanga
• Images of Tara became very popular. Growing curvilinear lotus stalk and her right hand in Abhaymudra.

Bodhgaya School of sculpture

• Has elements from the Matura school.
• Seated Buddha
• Standing image of Buddha broken off at mid thighs
• Elongated halo with the flame like motif around its perimeter.

B. Paintings – Pala School of painting

• The earliest examples of miniature painting in India were executed under the Palas.
• These paintings are found in Bengal and Bihar region, mostly produced in the buddhist centers of learning like Nalanda, Vikramsila, etc.
• Were initially done on palm leaves while later we see a shift towards painting on
• Buddhism remained the chief subject. Besides Buddhism, few paintings were dedicated to Hinduism.
• Scenic paintings like that of banana and coconut trees are also seen prominently.
• The Pala painting is characterized by sinuous lines and subdued tones of color.
• It is a naturalistic style that resembles the ideal forms of contemporary bronze and stone sculpture and reflects some feeling of the classical art of Ajanta.
• The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands of Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century.
• Ashtasahasrika-Prajnaparamita is a very popular manuscript. 5 leaves from the manuscript are shown below.

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CENTRAL INDIA

I. Political Background

The Rashtrakutas dynasty was founded by Dantidurga in 754 AD with its capital in Malkhed, Maharastra. Their rule continued till the end of the 10^th Century.

II. Literature and Language

This period saw the development of Kannada and Sanskrit. The trinity poets of this time – Pampa, Ranna, and Ponna made immense contributions to Kannada.

Literary contributions were few under the Rashtrakutas.

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Kavirajamarga	Amoghavarsha I	Poetic Works	Earliest work in Kannada	Rashtrakutas

III. Religion

The Rashtrakutas were tolerant in religious views and patronized Saivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism. The revival of Hinduism that began during the Guptas got a boost.

Though Jainism did not spread outside India like Buddhism, but continued to exist in Western India and Karnataka.

Even Muslim traders were allowed to settle and Islam was preached. Unfortunately, Buddhism saw a decline.

IV. Architecture

The Rashtrakutas temples are majorly rock cut. Art and architecture at Ellora and Elephanta cave temples are remarkable contributions of the Rashtrakutas.

A. Cave Temples

The vesara style reached its culmination under the Rashtrakutas. Deccan architecture shows the hybridization of Nagara and Dravidian style ie. Vesara style. These

1. Ellora – Kailashnath temple

• Is located in Ellora, Maharashtra
• This temple is considered the greatest achievement in Rashtrakutan architecture built under the patronage of Krishna I.
• It is a rock-cut temple built in Dravidian style with a Nandi shrine.
• It is carved out of a monolithic rock.
• Some of these caves are dedicated to Buddhism.

2. Elephanta Caves

• are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai Harbour.
• It has Hindu and Buddhist caves
• The Hindu caves are dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries.
• Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

V. Art

A. Ellora Caves

1. Shiva and Parvati’s Wedding

2. Ravana shaking the Kailash mountain

3. The Dashavatara Cave – illustrate ten incarnations of Vishnu. One being Vishnu rescuing Bhoodevi.

Other than these, Ramayana theme is well depicted in this temple.

B. Elephanta Cave Scultpures

1. Trimurti

• The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction

2. Gangadhara panel

• Shiva as Nataraj performing the Tandava (cosmic dance).

3. Gangadhara Panel

4. Ardhanarishvara Panel

Other than the above, Wedding of Shiva, Shiva slaying Andhaka and Yogisvara are other important scultures.

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SOUTH INDIA

South India witnessed the weakening of the mighty Pallavas giving way to the imperial Chola Empire. Few significant works of art and architecture are as follows

Bahubali

• Bahubali , a much revered figure among Jains was the son of Rishabanath, first Jain tirthankara.
• He is said to have meditated motionless for one year in a standing posture (Kayotsarga) and that during this time, climbing plants grew around his legs.
• After his year of meditation, Bahubali attained omniscience (Kevala Jnana).
• According to Jain texts, Bahubali’s soul was liberated from the cycle of births and deaths (moksha) at Mount Kailsh.
• Bahubali is also called Gommatesha because of the Gommateshwara monolithic statue dedicated to him.
• The statue was built under Ganga dynasty in Sravanabeligola in Karnataka around 981 AD.
• It is one of the largest free-standing statues in the world

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References and image credits

1. NCERTs
2. NIOS
3. CCRT site
4. http://www.indianetzone.com/35/features_pala_sculpture_indian_sculpture.htm
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty
6. http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_chts_laxman.asp

Area of interest: North India, Deccan India & South India

The political situation became complex with the passing away of the Guptas and the demise of the Vakataka rulers. Vassals of the Guptas became independent in the North.
In the Deccan and far South too, a multiplicity of powers were witnessed.

NORTH INDIA

Political Background

Harshavardhana (590 AD to 648 AD)

The fall of the Gupta rulers paved the way for domination of the Later Guptas, Maukharis and Pushyabhutis in the North. Harsha, though a Pushyabhuti ruler of Thaneswar ruled from Kanauj, which was originally the seat of Maukharis, with whom he contracted a marriage alliance. Harsha is celebrated as last ‘Hindu’ ruler in the North post the Gupta era.

Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Kadambari	Banabhatta	Romantic Sanskrit Novel	Romantic attachment between Chandrapeeda and Kadambari
Harshacharita	Banabhatta	Harsha’s biography in Sanskrit	An account of Harsha’s ancestry and his early life	Harsha
Priyadarshika	Harsha	Sanskrit play		Harsha
Nagananda	Harsha	Sanskrit play		Harsha
Ratnavali	Harsha	Sanskrit play	About a princess Ratnavali and a great King Udayan. One of the first references of Holi found in the text	Harsha
Mahaviracharita	Bhavabhuti	Sanskrit play	Based on the early life of Rama	Yashovarman of Kannauj
Malatimadhava	Bhavabhuti	Sanskrit play	The love story between Malati and Madhava	Yashovarman of Kannauj

Religion

All religions were patronized under Harshavardhana’s reign. He was a Shaivite, but later Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.

Hiuen Tsang who visited Harshavardhana’s empire noted Buddhism was declining in India while Brahmanism was on rise.

Art and Architecture

The art and architectural contributions of Harsha’s period are very few and mostly followed the Guptas. Harshavardhana’s realm is associated with the construction of numerous stupas and monasteries. Harsha patronized Nalanda University with his liberal endowments.

The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.

Lakshamana temple, Sirpur

• The Lakshamana temple is located in the village Sirpur of Chattisgarh.
• It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu

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DECCAN INDIA

Political Background

The late sixth century is marked by rise of Badami Chalukyas around the North Eastern part of Karnataka. The empire was founded by Pulakesin I. Pulakesin II (610 – 642 AD ) is considered the greatest ruler of the house.

Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Aihole Prasasti	Ravi Kirti	Pulakesin II’s eulogy	Mentions defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulekesin II when Harsha tried expanding towards the Deccan	Pulakesin II
Vikramankadevacharitam	Bilhana		An epic in honor of Vikramaditya VI	Western Chalukyan ruler, Vikramaditya VI

Religion

Chalukyans were both Vaishanavas and Shaivites but had a greater inclination towards Vaishnavism and Jainism. Nonetheless, they patronized all religions.

Architecture

A. Caves

Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.

B. Temples

Chalukyan temples are found in 3 places – Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal.

Badami – Badami cave temples are a complex of 6 temples – 4 Hindu, 1 Jain & 1 possibly Buddhist.

Cave 3 – Vishnu image

Aihole – Ladkhan temple, Durga temple and Ravana Phadi Temple

Durga temple

• It is an apsidal temple of 550 AD. The apsidal shape is similar to the shape of a Buddhist chaitya.
• Temple has an open pillared verandah serving as pradakshinapatha instead of a dark ambulatory path.
• Temple shows improvements in shikhara development as compared to the Gupta period.

Ravana Phadi Temple

• Ravana Phadi is a rock-cut cave with distinct sculptures made during the Chalukyan era.
• Among numerous sculptures is the Goddess Durga is portrayed in the carving. She appears to be slaying Mahishasura (panel above).

Pattadakal – This temple complex has 10 temples – 4 Dravida style, 4 in Nagara style, 1 Vesara style & 1 Jain Sanctuary. The Papanath temple is the Nagara style temple.

Virupaksha Temple

• Largest and grandest temple in Pattadakal
• Built in 8^th Century by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband’s (Vikramaditya II’s ) victory over Pallava ruler.

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SOUTH INDIA

Political Background

The Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas. After the fall of the Satavahanas in the 3rd century AD, they became independent. They ruled in the Tondaimandalam area with Kachipuram as their capital. The 7^th Century marked the rise of great rulers like Mahendravarman, Narasimhavarman I and Rajasimha. The Pallava rule reached its zenith under these rulers.

Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme
Mattavilasa Prahasana	Mahendravarman I	Sanskrit	Means the ‘delight of the drunkards’. Sanskrit farse on Buddhist and Kapalika ascetics
Kiratarjuniya	Bharavi	Sanskrit	Simhavishnu
Devaram	Nayanars	Tamil	Saiva literature
Nalayradivyaprabandam	Alvars	Tamil	Vaishnava literature

Religion

The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.

A. Hinduism

The Brahmins occupied a high place in society. Brahmanism and Brahmins were patronized by the rulers. The Pallava period witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism.

Bhakti Cult

The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. Apar and Sambandar were Shaivite bhakti saints who contributed immensely to the growth of Shaivism.

B. Buddhism and Jainism

Increased patronage of Hinduism and revival by the Bhakti movement led to the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.

Architecture

A. Temples

This era is significant for temple building activities as the Dravidian style of temple architecture began. The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples out of rocks. We see a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas which culminated in structural temples. The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in 4 stages.

Stage I – Mahendra phase

This stage sees the development of Pallava rock-cut temples under Mahendravarman I. They were built in many places. The most important among them are Pallavaram, Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Vallam and Thalavanur.

Pallavaram Caves

Stage II – Mamallapuram phase

The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and mandapas found at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram). The name ‘Mammalapuram’ is derived from Narshimahavarman’s name ‘Mamalla’ which means the ‘great wrestler’.

There are 5 Rathas – Dharmaraj Ratha, Bhim Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Draupadi Ratha, Nakul Sahdev. These rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signify 5 different styles of temple architecture. Dharmaraja Rath is the largest and it’s considered a precursor for the Dravidian style.

Rathas of Mahabalipuram

• The South saw the emergence of Dravida style of architecture. Earliest Dravida style is visible at Mahabalipuram where during the Pallava period were constructed different rock cut structures called rathas.
• Main shrine has a square ground plan
• The superstructure above the shrine instead of having a shikhara, has horizontal platforms each placed one above the other with the size receding upwards. This is called a vimana.
• Constructed under the patronage of Mahendravarman I and Narsimhavarman I.

The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The most popular of these mandapas are Varaha Madapam, Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and the Panchpandava Caves.

Panchpandava Caves

Stage III – Rajasimha phase

This stage witnesses the evolution of structural temples in South India. These temples were built by using the soft sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas.

Shore Temple

• The Shore temple is located in Mamallapuram.
• Its name is credited to its presence at the shore of Bay of Bengal.
• Built by Rajasimha.
• Made up of granite
• A Shaiva temple but also has a Vaishnava shrine

Kailasanatha Temple

• This temple is the oldest structure in Kanchipuram.
• Located in Tamil Nadu, it is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• Dravidian style temple.
• Built by Rajasimha.

Stage IV – Nandivarman phase

The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple and Muktheeswara temple at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.

Vaikunda Perumal Temple

• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu
• Dravidian style

Art

The Pallavas also contributed to the development of sculpture. Apart from the sculptures found in temples, an ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallpuram remains an important monument.

The Descent of the Ganga or Arjun’s penance remains the most important sculpture.

Descent of Ganga/ Arjun’s penance

• Made of a monolithic rock
• Found in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu
• Identified as Bhagiratha’s bringing Ganga down from the matted locks of Shiva
• It is also identified as Arjun’s penance
• Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Sittannavasal Jain paintings belonged to the period of Pallavas.

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References and image credits:

1. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/history-vardhana-society.htm
2. http://www.indianetzone.com/35/features_pala_sculpture_indian_sculpture.htm
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty#Architecture
4. http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in/Database/AiholeCaveorRavanaPhadiCave_2838.aspx
5. NCERTs
6. NIOS
7. CCRT site

Areas of Interest: North India, Central India, and South India

Unlike the previous period, this period saw was marked by political stability that ensured and encouraged cultural florescence. The Guptas and Vakatakas were the major powers in north and central India respectively.

South however witnessed a transitionary period called the Kalabhra Interregnum. This transitionary period was known as the ‘Dark Ages’ and lasted for 300 years. Not much is known about this time.

More can be read here – http://www.gloriousindia.com/history/kalabhra_interregnum.html

NORTH INDIA

1. Political Background

Gupta Empire extended for close to 300 years – almost twice the duration of the Mauryan Empire and 1.5 times the British Empire.

The maps above illustrate how they unified the whole of Northern India by around 480 AD. The Gupta Empire saw many great rulers who patronized art, architecture, and science. No wonder it has been referred to as the Golden Age. (this remains contested. While art and culture flourished, society showed signs of degeneration).

Finally, the Guptas lost out to the Hunas.

II. Literature and Language

A. Sanskrit

Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas. Needless to say, Classic Sanskrit literature saw tremendous development under their patronage.

Two great epics(Mahakayva), the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were compiled around 4AD. Their importance is as follows

1. They served as a precursor to various other Sanskrit literature
2. They are the origins of many of the stories and anecdotes of the social, religious, and cultural history of India.
3. They were translated into various languages that gave them renewed relevance and meaningful reincarnation.
4. These epics in turn shaped new languages providing them with substance and style.

Puranas follow the lines of epics. Some of the earlier Puranas were compiled in this era. There are 18 Mahapuranas and 19 Upa-puranas.

The Puranas were associated with the revival of Hinduism. They were in the form of stories which made them more palatable to the masses than the earlier bramanical text – the Vedas.

Besides the epics, this period also saw the development of kavya (poetry), nataka (drama) and other literature.

Two things can be noted about plays

1. They do not come across tragedies.
2. Characters of high social status speak Sanskrit: whereas those of lower status and women speak Prakrit. This particular feature throws light on the status of Sanskrit and Prakrit in society.

The table below summarizes the important works of this time.

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Allahabad Prasasti	Harisena	An inscription. The Allahabad Pillar also has inscriptions by Ashoka and Mughal Emperor Jahangir	Eulogy on the conquests of Samudragupta. Inscribed on the Allahabad Pillar	Samudragupta
Kumarasambhava	Kalidas	Mahakavya(epic poem)	Genealogy of Lord Rama. The Ikshvakus are also known as Raghuvanshis hence the name.
Raghuvamsa			Geneology of Lord Rama. The Ikshvakus are also known as Raghuvanshis hence the name.
Malavikagnimitra		Play	Story of love between Agnimitra, the Sunga Prince and the hand-maiden of his chief queen, Mālavikā. Also gives an account of his father Pushyamitra Sunga’s Rajasuya Yagna.
Vikramorvasiya			It’s a Sanskrit drama depicting the love story of Puruvas, a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect the qualities of Chandragupt Vikramaditya.
Abhigyana Shakuntala			A sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.
Ritusamhara		Lyrical Poetry	A mini epic poem on six seasons (Ritu). Considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.	Chandragupta II
Meghaduta		Lyrical Poetry	Cloud is a messenger. An exiled yaksha who is pining for his beloved on a lonely mountain peak. When, at the beginning of a monsoon, a cloud perches on the peak, he asks it to deliver a message to his love in the Himalayan city of Alaka.	Chandragupta II
Mricchakatika	Sudraka	Plays	Mrichhakatika means a “little clay cart’. Traces the love story of Charudatta with Vasantsena. There is a hindi movie on the same work starring Rekha and Shekhar Suman.
Vinavasavadatta
Padmaprabhritaka			Bhana (short one-act monologue)
Mudrārākṣasa	Vishakhadatta		Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the Demon”. It narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to throne.
Swapnavasavadatta, Pancharatra, Urubhanga, Madhyama-vyayoga	Bhasa		Vatya King Udayan and his queen Vasavadatta.
Vakyapadiya	Bhartṛhari	Grammar	A treatise on Sanskrit Grammar
Amarakosha	Amarasimha	Grammar	Sanskrit Grammar	Chandragupta II

Aryabhatiyam	Aryabhatta	Maths	Also mentions Suryasiddhanta. Aryabhatta is credited with the discovery of algebra. He formulated the area of triangle which led to the origin of Trigonometry. He *did not* invent zero.
Panchasiddhanta	Varahamihira	Astrology	Gives a summary of 5 schools of astrology – Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta. Also discusses concepts of Trigonometry.
Brihatsamhita	Varahamihira	Astrology

III. Religion

A. Hinduism

• Vaishnavism – Bhagavatism on the rise.
• Emergence of Pauranic Hinduism

The brahmanical tradition witnessed a decisive change from what was traditionally practised as “Vedic tradition”. Vedic Brahmanism gave way to Pauranic Hinduism. Sacrifices/ Rituals were not entirely abandoned but they lost their steam.

Where Vedic Brahmanism was intimately linked with lavish sacrifices and upper varna-jatis, Pauranic Hinduism became widely popular as it was open to all varna-jatis including Shudras, women, etc and encouraged the worship of a personal deity.

Its accessibility lay in performing acts that required little investments – the giving of gifts, keeping of fasts and vows, traveling collectively to places of pilgrimages, and subscribing to local mythologies.

B. Buddhism

Buddhism no longer received royal patronage, unlike the earlier times. Samudragupta’s permission to the King of Ceylon to erect a magnificent monastery in Bodh-Gaya indicates that Buddhism was given good patronage.

Nalanda prospered under their patronage.

Post 500AD it saw a new phase in Buddhism marked by the following developments

1. Homogenization with Hinduism: Hindus practiced devotion to Buddha as a reincarnation of Lord Vishnu. In a way, Hinduism went on to assimilate Buddhism as a part/ branch of its own.

2. Humble beginnings of what later comes to be known as tantric Buddhism. The new form of text associated with this tradition, the tantras, appeared during the Gupta period, and there are indications that distinctively Tantric rituals began to be employed at this time as well. Tara is a female Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism who appears as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is known as the “mother of liberation”, and represents the virtues of success in work and achievements.

This will later develop into a full-fledged Vajrayana cult and reach its peak during the Pala Empire.

C. Jainism

Jainism spread into Gujarat. At Valabhi, took place the compilation of two Jain canonical texts in two councils in the 4th and 5th centuries.

D. Shaktism and Tantrism

Shaktism and Tantrism are closely associated with cults. They started as different streams. Shaktism revolves around placing women at the center. Later this cult starts to be associated with Shaivism, where Shakti is seen as Shivas consort.

The name Tantrism is derived from sacred texts called tantras. The earliest works were written in the Gupta period. In the course of time, tantrism manages to penetrate all religions.

IV. Architecture

A. Stupas

1. Dhamekh Stupa

Originally built in 249 BCE during the reign of King Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty, this massive and prominent structure has over time gone through several expansions and additions. This solid cylindrical shaped Stupa is made of red bricks and stone. The stone facing is chiseled and displays delicate floral carvings of Gupta origin.

B. Caves

The earliest examples of religious architecture were cave-temples which typically had exteriors decorated with relief sculpture and a single carved doorway.

Inside the shrine, ritual sculptures were placed such as a Shiva linga, and the walls were richly decorated with more carvings showing scenes from mythology.

1. Udayagiri Caves

Note4Students – There are a number of places in India with the same name, the most notable being the mountain called Udayagiri at Rajgir in Bihar and the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Orissa. The caves in Orissa correspond to Jainism.

The Udayagiri caves belonging to the Gupta period are located in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.

There are about 14 caves but you need to focus on only 1 of them: Cave #5 – Dedicated to the Varaha avatar of Vishnu.

This shrine is one of the finest examples of Gupta art, the celebrated relief showing Vishnu in his incarnation as the boar-headed Varaha. Varaha’s avatar rescued the Earth from the chaos of the cosmic sea.

The scholars say that when Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) renovated the cave in this manner, he wanted to portray the rescue of Northern India from the political instability and fragmentation that it had experienced prior to the rise of the Gupta Empire.

2. Junagarh Caves

The so-called “Buddhist Caves” are not actually caves, but three separate sites of rooms carved out of stone to be used as monks’ quarters.

Unique feature = Presence of a 30-50 ft high citadel-like feature – Upar Kot in front of the prayer hall

3. Bagh Caves:

Located on the bank of the Baghani River in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh. These rock-cut caves possess the most amazing paintings known to be made by ancient man. According to legend, these caves were established by Buddhist monk Dataka. Out of the initial 9 caves only 5 have been extant.

Bagh Caves are known for Mural Paintings – thick mud plaster in brownish orange color. The most famous features of Bagh Caves are these murals made in the tempera technique.

http://www.chinkarajourneys.com/uploads/map/Bagh_murial_painting.jpg>

Over this plaster, there was done lime-priming and then paintings were laid. This is also known as the tempera technique, which refers to the use of a permanent fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder media.

4. Nasik Caves

http://www.wondermondo.com/Images/Asia/India/Maharashtra/Pand.jpg>

A group of 23 caves, also called ‘Pandav-Leni’.

These caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism (have no images of Buddhas)

Contrary to what their name suggests they have nothing to do with the characters of Mahabharata (the Pandavas).

C. Temples

Not satisfied with caves, the Guptas were the first dynasty to build permanent free-standing Hindu temples. This lay the foundation of the Nagara School of Art. Temple architecture with the development of a square sanctum and pillared portico emerged during the Gupta period.

Among the 5 stages of temple development, you will find a gradual progression from flat-roofed, monolithic temples in the initial stage to the sculptured ‘shikhara’ in the later years.

Stage #1 – Temple 17, Sanchi & Kankali Temple, Tigwa.

• Flat roof temples
• Square temples
• Shallow pillared approach at the front
• Low platforms

Stage #2 – Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, MP

• Continued- Flat roof, square pillared approach (not shallow)
• High or upraised platforms
• Covered ambulatory around the sanctum (garbhagriha) for worshippers to do a parikrama
• Two storied temples (sometimes)

Stage #3 – Dashavatara Temple, Deogargh & Durga Temple Aihole, Karnataka

• Most of the features of 2nd stage are carried forward
• Flat roof evolved into a curvilinear roof (shikhara)
• Introduction of Panchayatan style of temple making

A Hindu temple is a Panchayatana one when the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with 4 subsidiary shrines at 4 corners making it a total of 5 shrines. The origin of the name is the Sanskrit words Pancha (5) et ayatana (containing).

Stage #4 – Ter Temple, Sholapur

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Noticable change from square to rectangular shape of the main shrine

Stage #5

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections

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Stage 3 Temples in detail

1. Dasavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh

Dasavatara = Das (10) + Avatara (Incarnation). The temple depicts the 10 avataras of Vishnu.

First North Indian temple with a shikhara.

Earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India.

Two river goddesses, the Ganga and Yamuna, are mentioned as attendants of Shiva and this occurs as a regular feature of temple architecture from the doorways of the Dasavatara temple.

There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls:

1. On the west – Gajendramoksha is the story of achieving moksha, symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s suppression of an asura Who had taken the form of an elephant.

2. On the east – Nara-Narayan shows the discussion between the human soul and the eternal divine.

3. On the south – The Sheshashayana Vishnu panel is a superb piece of art

• Sheshashayana is the form of Vishnu where he is shown reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta whose seven hoods form a canopy over his crowned head
• His consort Lakshmi is massaging his right leg and two attendant figures stand behind her
• Various gods and celestials are hovering above. Lord Brahma can be seen.
• In the lower panel, the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha, in an attacking attitude, are challenged by the four personified weapons of Vishnu

2. Bhitargaon Temple, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

source

• The first full unit temple with a Vimana.
• It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple made entirely of bricks/terracotta.
• The temple is built on a square plan with double-recessed corners and faces east. There tall pyramidal spire over the garbhagriha.
• Terracotta sculpture depicts both secular and religious theme such as deities like ganesha adi virah mahisasaur-mardani and river goddess. Myths and stories representing abduction of Sita and the penance of nara-narayan.

3. Ahichhatra Temple (Shiva Temple)

The Shiva temple at Ahichhatra belongs to the Gupta period 4th century A.D. It is famous for its two life-sized terracotta images of Ganga and Yamuna.

Ganga and Yamuna are installed in niches flanking the main steps leading to the upper terrace of the temple.

Ganga stands on her vehicle, the makara. and Yamuna on the kacchap.

V. Art

A. Sculpture

1. Mathura School

Mathura school also witnessed some development during the Gupta period. A prominent sculpture is the Standing Buddha at Matura

• Red sandstone image of the Buddha dated to 500AD
• Right hand in abhayamudra, assuring protection, and the left holding the hem of the garment.
• Smiling countenance with down-cast eyes is robed in spiritual ecstasy
• Robe covering both shoulders is skillfully represented with delicately covered schematic folds and clings to the body
• Head is covered with schematic spiral curls with a central protuberance and the elaborate halo decorated with concentric bands of graceful ornamentation.

2. The Sarnath School of Sculpture

The art of Bharhut, Amravati, Sanchi and Mathura came closer and closer; melting into one – The Sarnath School.

Its plasticity is derived from that of Mathura and its elegance from that of Amravati. Plasticity is a term used to describe a rich, three-dimensional or sculptural presence of a building.

The human figure takes center stage and nature becomes the background.

A prominent sculpture is Standing Buddha at Sarnath

• his right hand in abhayamudra.
• Unlike the delicately carved drapery folds of the Mathura Buddha, only the fringe of the diaphanous robe is here indicated.
• The eyes gaze downward, not directly at, but into the viewer
• The very fine high-grade surface seems to have a soft bloom -a specially distinctive Sarnath quality

Difference between Sarnath and Mathura School Buddha

Sarnath School	Mathura School
Relaxed attitude in the body of the sculpture. Visible bends	Mathura School had a columnar rigidity in similar works
Very fine draping – almost invisible on the body but left hanging out on the sides	In the Mathura School, the drapes were elaborate and folds were very much visible
The body in its smooth and shining plasticity constitutes the principal theme of the Sarnath artists	Mathura sculpture was more rigid
At Sarnath, the material used was cream colored sandstone	Mathura sculpture was made of moderately fine red sandstone.

Follow the link for more remarkable examples or Sarnath School Sculptures

http://www.sarnathmuseumasi.org/Gallery-No1.aspx

http://varanasi.nic.in/history/ams1.html

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References and image credits:

Mudras – http://www.buddhas-online.com/mudras.html

Timeline-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism

http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/indian.html

Areas of Interest – North, South & East India (specifically Kalinga)

The five centuries that passed between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas witnessed a lot of political instability and upheaval in the North of India. The South however remained fairly stable.

NORTH INDIA

I. Political Background

As the maps suggest, many kingdoms came up in North India. Despite being foreign rulers, they were assimilated in our culture and influenced it in many ways. The 3 most important among them were

1. Sunga Empire (185BCE–73 BCE) – East India

They succeeded the Mauryan Empire in Magadha. Pushyamitra Sunga was the first king of this dynasty.

2. Indo-Greek Kingdom (180BCE – 010AD) – North West India

The Greeks were the first foreign power in the sub-continent. After Alexander left, his generals stayed back. Hence the term Indo-Greek. They brought the Greek culture. Menander(165-145 BC) was the most important king in this time. In Pali Literature he is known as Milinda.

3. Indo-Scythian or Sakas (200 BC–400 AD) – West India

Sakas or Scythians were nomadic Central Asian tribes who destroyed the Indo-Greek rule in north-western India. They were pushed out of Central Asia and came to India. The Sakas were divided into five branches. Around 100AD, they give rise to Kushana Empire and Western Kshatrapas.

SL No.	Early	Later (100AD)
1	Afghanistan	Kushanas   (60AD–240 AD)
2	Punjab (Taxila)
3	Mathura
4	Maharashtra + Saurashtra	Western Kshatrapa (27 independent)   (35AD–405AD)
5	Central India (Ujjain)

Kanishka is the most celebrated king of the Kushana empire. At its peak, his empire extended from Khotan in the northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in the north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south. The capital of his empire was Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar.

II. Literature

Many important works of literature happened in this era.

Work	Author	Theme	Patronage
Junagarh Rock inscription	Rudradaman I from the Western Kshatrapa	He’s credited to have issued the 1st long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. It mentions the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudershana Lake. Junagarh Rock also contains inscriptions from Ashoka and Skandgupta (from the Gupta Period almost 800 years later).	Rudradaman I
Milindapanho	Nagasena	Menander asked Nagasena many questions related to philosophy and Buddhism, which together with Nagasena’s answers are recorded in Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda.	Milinda
Saundarananda, Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi	Ashvaghosh	Buddhacharita is a complete lifecof Buddha written in the form of Mahakavya. It is the first Buddist book written in Sanskrit.	Kanishka
Charaka-Samhita	Charaka	Extends Ayurveda and lays down the concept of balance of 3 doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha.
Sushruta-Samhita	Sushruta(Father of Surgery)	He mentions more than 120 instruments

Junagarh Rock inscription.

III. Religion

1. Hinduism

Vaishnavism – There were 3 streams centered around worship of Vishnu or Bhagawat

1. Vishnu as a minor god in Vedic times. Was worshipped as the Sun and fertility cult.
2. Narayana was a non-vedic tribal god. He was also called Bhagavat.
3. Vishnu came to be identified as the hero of the vrishni tribe known as Krishna-Vasudeva.

By 200 BC all these 3 streams merged into one and led to the creation of Bhagvatism. By the end of Late Gupta Period, it was assimilated into Vaishnavism.

2. Buddhism

Buddhism continued to receive royal patronage. Many kings of this era were Buddhists. Kanishka’s court was adorned by the presence of such scholars as Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna.

A major development in Buddhism was it’s splitting up in to two sects –The Hinayana and the Mahayana. Kanishka organized the 4^th Buddhist council where this split happened.

Hinayana	Mahayana
Also known as Lesser Vehicle	Greater Vehicle
Treat Buddha has a guide (Since Buddha never said he was God)	Treat Buddha as a God
Worshipped only in form of symbols that represent various stages in the life of Buddha	Worshipped in human form, Bodhisattvas.
Literature only in Pali	Sanskrit

This phase also witnessed the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism to south and south east Asia.

IV. Architecture

1. Stupas

The Sungas were great patrons of art and architecture. They contributed to the expansion of Bharut and Sanchi Stupas.

Bharhut and Sanchi

	Bharut	Sanchi
Time Period	100 BC is the accepted date for Bharut. Slightly earlier than Sanchi and Ajanta. Said to have been started by Ashoka but much of its work has been done in the time of the Sungas.	100 BC. Said to have been started by Ashoka but much of its work has been done in the time of the Sungas. The decorated gateways with lavish carvings were done by Satavahanas.
Location	Satna District of MP. Was on a major trade route from western coastal regions to Pataliputra.	A very large complex 13-14km from Vidisha, the capital of Mauryan Empire. Vidisha was a very important trading town. It was on the Dakshinapath – an offshoot of the Uttarapath, which connected Taxila to Pataliputra and further east.
Stupa	Has been reconstructed in Indian Museum Calcutta	There are 3 stupas Stupa 1- The Great Stupa. Largest of them. It has 4 gates with Toranas. Stupa 2 – This is the earliest stupa. Same time as Bharut but simpler. Stupa 3 –Has only 1 Torana.

Bharut : Themes Represented

Discovered by Cunninghum. Has been reconstructed in Indian Museum Calcutta. Stone Architecture. Surrounded by Vedika roughly 3 feet.

Only 1 Torana has been found but it is suspected that there would’ve been 4.

As evident, the Vedika and Torana have beautiful carvings. They are 5 elements –

1. Visual narratives about the life of Buddha

Buddha is represented in his iconic form – feet, bodhi tree, dharmachakra, empty seat, and not the human form (symbolizing the Theravadin/ Hinayana Buddhism).

2. Jataka Kathas – Jatakas Stories like the Kaka Jataka(Monoscenic), Ruru Jataka

3. Yakshas and Yakshis – These gods of local cults start assimilating into Buddhism. It is believed that Yakshis were made through the contributions of women.

4. Medallions – There are also medallions like the one shown below. They represent the sun god, various bodhisattvas, etc.

Sanchi: Themes Represented

Sanchi Complex has 3 stupas. Follow the Map below.

Stupa No. 1 is the largest and is called the Great Stupa. It has 4 gates with Toranas. In the pic, you see the Northern Gate.

There are extensive carvings on the Torana. The themes are similar to those of Bharut.

Stupa 2 – This is the earliest stupa. Same time as Bharut but simpler.

Stupa 3 –Has only 1 Torana.

2. Pillars

1. Heliodorus Pillar

• Stone column erected by Heliodorus, Greek ambassador to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra, around 150BC
• In honor of Vasudeva.

V. Independent Art

A. Sunga Art

-Standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis, discovered from Gwalior and Mathura

-Dwarfish Yaksha from the Pithalkhora caves in Central India

B. The Gandhara School and the Mathura School of Art

This period saw the emergence to two very important schools of art – one in Gandhara, North West Frontier Province and the other in Mathura.

The Gandhara Art received patronage from various dynasties – Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan Kings. It was during Kanishka’s reign that both these centers flourished.

Gandhara	Mathura
Strong Greek influence and was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art. Assimilating various traits of Achaemenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark of the Gandhara style.	No foreign Influence, however, later it cross fertilized with the Gandhara School. Its development took place indigenously.Initially inspired by Yaksha Images
Blue-grey Mica / Grey Sandstone.	Spotted Red Sandstone
Rendering of drapery with sharp flowing folds similar to those shown in Roman togas. Finer details and realistic images. Buddha carved out in various Mudras. Wavy curled hair.	Early period: Light volume having fleshy body. Later Period: Flashiness reduced. Not much attention to detailed sculpting.
Halo not decorated. Images are very expressive.	The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated. Images less expressive.
Mainly Buddhism	All religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism

Gandhara School: Themes represented

Buddha is depicted standing frontally with one leg bent.

Greek Deities

Zeus Apollo, Athena indicating the Greeks wanted to preserve their culture.

Portraits of Kings

Other Sites

Mathura School – Themes represented

The Buddhist religion greatly flourished under the patronage of Kushan emperors, and several images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas were produced after the earlier Yaksha types.

The first purely Indian Style art and sculptures were produced here. Mathura Art is famous for its iconographic traits – identification of particular deities based on their postures, attributes, vehicles.

Common Facial Features – Oval/ Roundish faces, open eyes, thick lips and sharp nose.

Fleshy full-body figures in a number of postures. Female figures are voluptuous, heavy round breasts, narrow waist. Male figures are shown with a slight V shape.

i. Buddhism

Buddha seen in Abhaymudra with one hand raised.

ii. Jainism

Mathura also becomes an important center of Jainism. A new kind of worshipping develops in this era – that of the Ayagapattas. The Jains produced votive tablets called ayagapattas that contain auspicious marks of worship such as fish couple or matsya yugala, the swatiska, etc.

Jain Ayagapattas with a Tirthankara in the middle.

iii. Shaivism

Various Shaiva images have been found from the region though their numbers are limited.

• Chaturmukhalinga.

• Karttikeya-Skanda

iv. Vaishnavism

• Balarama is shown with a snake canopy . Sometimes he carries a lion-staff plough.

v. Local Cults

Naga Cult is very prominent. A lot of Naga Temples have been found in/around this area.

vi. Statue of Kanishka

Last but not the least, we have the statue of Kanishka.

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SOUTH INDIA

I. Political Background

In the south, the Sangam Period starts (circa 300BC – 300AD). We see the emergence for 3 main kingdoms

1. Cholas – Kaveri Delta

2. Cheras – Kaveri Karoor

3. Pandya – Vagai, Madhurai

In the Deccan, the Satvahanas declare themselves as independent after the fall of the Mauryan Empire and emerge as a powerful force. Their kingdom is centered around Aurangabad.

Their 3rd king, Satakarni I seems to have performed two Ashvamedhayajna. His achievements are described in detail in the Nanaghat Inscription. Referred to as the lord of Dakshinapatha.

The strongest Satvahana ruler – Gautamiputra Satakarni carried out expeditions against the Saka rulers and drove them out of Maharashtra. His achievements are recorded in the Nasik inscription. By 225 AD, the Satvahanas are replaced by Ikshwaku (refer map).

II. Literature

A. Sangam Literature

South sees the emergence of Tamil Language. For the first time, we come to know of life in South India using literature. Sangam means assembly of scholars. Each Sangam consisted of a number of distinguished poets and erudite scholars who selected the best ones from amongst the works submitted to them. Many female authors seem to have contributed.

The Sangam classics, consisting of 18 works (8 anthologies of lyrics and 10 long poems), are well known for their directness of expression. The eight anthologies called the Ettuttogai are considered to be the earliest work belonging to the BC 300. The 10 poems are called Pattupattu. They are divided into

1) Aham deals purely with the subjective emotions of the lover.

2) Puram deals with objective emotions, mainly the valor and glory of kings, good and evil.

Some important works Sangam works are as follows –

Name	Author	Notes
Thirukkural	Thiruvalluvar	Serves as a manual of precepts to guide one to noble living
Agattiyam	Agathiyar	The first known book on Tamil grammar. Believed to be lost beyond redemption.
Tolkāppiyam	Tolkappiyar	Work on the grammar of the Tamil language and the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature and Linguistics. It talks of Thinai(explained below)

Thinai : Another fascinating aspect of Sangam literature is its reference to 5 landscapes(eco-zones) and the people associated with them known as Thinai.

Ecozone as mentioned in Sangam Literature	Refers to	Associated human settlement
Marudam	Agricultural lands, Plains	Peasants, farmers
Mullai	Forest	Pastoral people
Palai	Desert Lands	Bandits, Travellers
Kurunji	Mountains/Hilly Areas	Hill tribes
Neydhal	Coastal Areas	Fishermen

B. Tamil Epics outside the Sangam Literature

We have 5 great epics.

No	Name	Author	Notes
1	Silappatikāram	Ilango Adigal	Love story between Kovalan who prefers the courtesan Madhavi of Kaveripattinam over his wife Kannagi.
2	Manimekalai	Cattan	Story of the daughter, Manimekalai, born out of love of Kovalan and Madhavi. There is also an elaborate exposition of the doctrines of Buddhism.
3	Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi		Adopted from Sanskrit Mahapurana, is predominantly sensuous, though Jain philosophy is brought to practical aspects of life
4	Valayapathi
5	Kundalakēci

III. Religion

We see no specific adherence to religion. The Sangam texts were secular in nature(one main reason how they differed from the Vedas)

IV. Architecture

A. Stupas

1. The Amaravati Stupa

Covered with locally available white limestone.

5 pillars at each gateway. These 5 pillars represent the 5 milestones of the life of Buddha (discussed earlier)

Use this tool to explore further – http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/buddha/explore/intro.html

2. Nagarjunakonda Stupa

Built by the successor of Satvahanas, the Ikshwakus. They continued the great art traditions of Satvahanas.

B. Rock-cut caves

1. Karle caves & Bhaja caves

Both caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism.

Karla Cave is the largest Hinayana Buddhist Chaitya in India built during Satavahana’s rule. Karla is the best example of rock-cut architecture, which is believed to carve out from a living rock. Some of its 2000-year-old wooden beams are still alive.

Bhaja caves are also mainly Viharas and Chaityas.

• Noteworthy are the Dampati and the Mithuna figures as also the pairs riding the magnificent elephant crowning the pillars forming imposing colonnades.
• The figures are more than life-size and are represented with a powerful and muscular physique.

2. Ajanta caves

The earliest group of caves consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. They were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Satavahanas who ruled the region.

Check out our Case Study on Ajanta and Ellora to explore more.

V. Independent Art

A. The Amaravati School of Art

• Sculptural form in this area is characterised by intense emotions.
• Figures are slender, have a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi.
• White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. The curly hair of Buddha is a feature that is influenced by the Greeks.
• In this school, the Kings, Princes, Palaces, etc. have got prominence.

A relief medallion from Amravati belonging to the 2 century A.D. is a masterly representation of a scene showing the subjugation or taming of Nalagiri, a mad elephant let loose on the Buddha.

Carving on the outer wall of Amaravati Stupa

A famous carving depicts the adoration of the feet of the Buddha by four women and belongs to the 2nd century A.D. from Amravati.

Three-dimensional space in the relief sculpture is devised by using pronounced volume, angular bodies, and complex overlapping.

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References and Image credits:

http://www.madhyapradeshtourism.gov.in/avimage/MapSanchi.jpg

http://mw2.google.com/mw-panoramio/photos/medium/79445820.jpg

http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/02545/amaravathi_2545762f.jpg

http://media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/37/74737-004-85754D33.jpg

http://image.slidesharecdn.com/mauryan-gandhar-gupta-110424184708-phpapp01/95/mauryan-gandhargupta-23-728.jpg?cb=1303672249

http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=251183&partId=1

Areas of Interest: North India

NORTH INDIA

I. Political Background

The period from the sixth to the late fourth century BC witnessed the rise of territorial polities-mahajanapadas in North India. This culminated in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire in about 325 BC. The Mauryan Empire was a pan-Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya.

Ashoka is considered the most significant ruler of the empire.

II. Literature and Language

The Mauryan era witnessed very few literary contributions. These contributions were either in Prakrit or Pali or Sanskrit.

1. Sanskrit

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Arthashastra	Chanakya	Political text written in Sanskrit	Deals with statecraft, Economic policy, military strategy and overall administration of the Mauryan realm.	Chandragupta Maurya

2. Pali and Prakrit

The religious books of Buddhism and Jainism were written in Pali and Prakrit (the language of the masses) respectively. This ensured even common men read and understood religion.

The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.

The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Work	Author	Type	Theme
Vinaya Pitaka	Upali	Buddhist scripture written in Pali. Name means basket of discipline.	Deals with monastic rules for monks and nuns.
Abhidhamma Pitaka		Buddhist scripture written in Pali	Deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
Sutta Pitaka	Ananda	Pali collection of Buddhist writings of Thervada Buddhism	Deals with dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma.

The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are interesting stories of the previous births of Buddha. Each birth story is called a Jataka.

The Jain texts were written in Prakrit.

Work	Author	Type	Theme
Kalpasutra	Bhadrabahu	Jain scripture. written in Prakrit.	Jain scripture. written in Prakrit.

Besides these texts, Megasthenes’ Indica which was written in Greek also sheds light on the Mauryan administration.

III. Religion

Mauryan rulers were tolerant towards all religions.

1. Hinduism

Despite the increased popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, Hinduism remained popular too. Hinduism underwent changes during this era. Though Yajanas were performed animal sacrifices were stopped.

2. Buddhism

Buddhism flourished during Ashoka’s realm. He sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism. Ashoka is also credited for the construction of 84000 stupas. Ashoka also convened the Third Buddhist Council.

History of Buddhist Council – These councils were Buddhist meetings held periodically which included Buddhist monks, nuns, and religious leaders.

Buddhist Council	Timeline	Location	Outcome	Spiritual Leader (Monk)	Patronage
First Buddhist Council	Around 400 BC after Lord Buddha’s death.	Sattapanni caves, Rajgriha	Led to formulation of Sutta and Vinaya Pitaka.	Mahakasyapa	Ajatashatru
Second Buddhist Council	Around 383 BC	Vaishali	The aim was to settle the dispute on practices of Vinaya Pitaka which led to the first schism of Buddhism– Mahasamghikas and Sthaviravadins sects were formed. Sthaviravadins followed orthodox norms while Mahasamghikas followed less rigid norms.	Yasa	Kalasoka
Third Buddhist Council	Around 251 BC	Pātaliputra	Led to formulation of Abhidhamma Pitaka.	Moggaliputta Tissa	Ashoka
Fourth Buddhist Council	Around 72 AD	Kashmir	Buddhists further divided into 2 sects- Mahayana and Hinayana.	Vasumitra	Kanishka

3. Jainism

The growing merchant community made religious grants to Jainism which ensured the religion prospered. Chandragupta Maurya became a Jain follower and sent missions to the South to propagate the religion further. The decline in animal sacrifices was a result of the increasing influence of Jainism and Buddhism.

IV. Architecture

For the first time, we see state-sponsored art and architecture. Architectures prior to this period seem to have been made of wood and hence were not able to survive. A case in point is the 80-pillared hall at Kumrahar which is often considered to be a Mauryan palace.

A. Stupas (click for more details)

For the first time, we see the construction of Stupas. These are hemispherical dome structures originally built over the relics of Buddha after his death. There were 8 of them distributed in places where Buddha seemed to have lived – Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilvastu, Allakapa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar. Ashoka is credited to have commissioned construction of 84000 stupas.

The components of a Stupa are shown in the diagram –

B. Pillars and Capitals (click for more details)

After the Harappan period stone sculpting had disappeared. Its re-emergence is seen in Ashokan pillar and capitals.

Summary of sites where capitals have been discovered

Crowning Animal	Site
Quadruple Lion	Sarnath
Single Lion	Basarah – Bakhira, Lauriya – Nandangarh, Rampurva, Vaishali
Elephant	Sankissa
Bull	Rampurva

1. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh

• Another remarkable sculpture is Sarnath’s lion capital
• Characterized by four Asiatic lions standing back to back
• It was adopted as India’s national emblem in 1950.
• Figures of horse, lion, bull and elephant are sculpted on the abacus.
• This pillar capital symbolized Dharmachakraparivartana that is the first sermon of Buddha.
• The abacus has four wheels with 24 spokes each. This wheel with 24 spokes is adopted in the National Flag.

1. Basarah – Bakhira, Bihar

• Single crowning lion sitting on a square abacus.
• Compared to other capitals, this sculpture is relatively less ornamented.

2. Lauriya – Nandangarh Lion Capital

• In Champaran district of Bihar.
• The pillar is inscribed with edicts of Ashoka
• Characterized by round abacus and lion as the crowning animal.

3. Sankisa Elephant Capital

• Located in Uttar Pradesh
• After Buddha’s death Ashoka installed series of columns in Sankissa among them only the Elephant capital survives.

4. Rampurva, Bihar

• Is a hybridization of Persian and Indian elements.
• The abacus shows Greek influence and has beautiful floral designs.
• Zebu bull is depicted as the crowning animal.

C. Temples

Evidence of the earliest known structural temples has been recovered through excavations at the Bairat District of Jaipur, Rajasthan.

• This shrine is dated to the 3rd century B.C
• A circular brick and timber shrine of the Mauryan period
• Was made of lime-plastered brick work
• Points to construction of wooden pillars.
• Surrounded by a seven feet wide ambulatory.

Temple 40′ at Sanchi, has a similar plan, it was a stone temple on an apsidal plan enclosed by an ambulatory, and raised on a high, rectangular scale, approached by two flights of steps from diagonally opposite sides. The super-structure was possibly built of wood, and has disappeared.

D. Caves

Many caves were built during the time of Ashoka. They were mostly Chaityas and Viharas (click to read more)

1. BARABARA CAVES

• Oldest surviving rock-cut cave in India.
• These caves are situated in the twin hills of Barabar (four caves) and Nagarjuni (three caves) located in Bihar.
• These caves were granted to Ajivika sect by Ashoka. Ashokan inscriptions have been found in this cave.
• Caves are carved out of granite and have a polished surface.
• Barabar Hill contains four caves, namely, Karan Chaupar, Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visva Zopri.
• Among these most important are Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves as they are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India

2. LOMAS RISHI CAVE

• The arch-like shape facade of Lomas Rishi Caves, imitates the contemporary timber architecture

3. SUDAMA CAVE

• This cave has better finishing in comparison to Lomas Rishi cave. The inner walls are highly polished.

V. Independent Art

Human figures are conspicuously absent. Exceptions to this pattern are the yaksha and yakshi sculptures.

A. Sculpture

Yaksha and Yakshi figures – Life-size figures have been found in Vidisha, Patna and Mathura.

DIDARGANJ YAKSHI

• Found from a Didarganj, Patna.
• A wonderfully modeled life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk)
• Characterized by elaborate ornamentations and sensuous appeal depicting Indian sculptural tradition.
• Highly polished surface made up of sandstone.

PAKHAM, YAKSHA

• Located in Mathura
• Made up of sandstone

Elephant in Dhauli, Orissa

• Dhauli Hills are located on the banks of river Daya south of Bhubaneshwar
• The oldest Buddhist sculpture in Orissa is the rock-cut elephant above which Ashokan Edicts are spotted.

Male Torso, Lohanipur

– Highly polished. The nude torso of a Jain Tirthankara or a savior of the Digambara sect found at Lohanipur

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Additional Readings

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cz1413OZGb8
2. https://www.asianart.com/articles/jaya/yakspar.html
3. http://www.mapability.com/travel/p2i/barabar_4.php
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhauli
5. http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/s/019pho000001003u0330b000.html
6. www.studyblue.com
7. http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/dhauli/re01.html