A 21-year-long study has resulted in the discovery of a new frog species, Leptobrachium aryatium, named after Arya Vidyapeeth College in Assam.
About the frog ‘Leptobrachium aryatium’
Leptobrachium aryatium, a newly discovered species of frog, was found in the Garbhanga Reserve Forest, located on the southwestern edge of Guwahati, Assam, near the Meghalaya border.
The species was identified through a re-analysis of past research and new studies on the Leptobrachium genus.
Key Features:
Distinctive Eyes: The frog has fiery orange-and-black eyes, setting it apart from other species in the genus.
Reticulated Throat Pattern: A unique reticulated pattern on its throat adds to its distinct appearance.
Smooth, Rhythmic Call: Emits a smooth, rhythmic call at dusk, a feature unique to this species in the genus.
Molecular and Morphological Distinctiveness: DNA analysis and physical studies confirmed it as a new species, distinguished by its unique call and appearance.
[UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?
On April 16, 2025, the Ecological Restoration Alliance-India (ERA-I) has released a first-of-its-kind seed germination database aimed at enhancing the success of growing native plants for ecological restoration.
About the Seed Germination Database:
It was launched by the Ecological Restoration Alliance-India (ERA-I). ERA was formed in July 2021, as an informal collective between practitioners, ecologists and individuals.
ERA-I collaborated with organizations like Auroville Botanical Gardens, NCF, and Wildlife Trust of India.
It features over 1,000 germination techniques for 465 native plant species found across India.
It aims to help restoration practitioners, nursery managers, and native plant enthusiasts improve success rates in growing plants for ecological restoration.
It is a free-access database and offers valuable information on germinating native plants crucial for restoration projects.
Native Plants Included:
The database features a diverse array of native plant species. These species are key to restoring balance in degraded ecosystems.
Native plants are essential for creating climate-resilient ecosystems.
Such database plays a vital role in ecological restoration.
It provides 1,000+ techniques for growing native plants, enhancing the success of restoration projects.
The database supports India’s Bonn Challenge commitment to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
[UPSC 2016] In the context of food and nutritional security of India, enhancing the ‘Seed Replacement Rates’ of various crops helps in achieving the food production targets of the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in its wider/greater implementation?
1. There is no National Seeds Policy in place.
2. There is no participation of private sector seed companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting materials of horticultural crops.
3. There is a demand-supply gap regarding quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only * (c) 2 and 3 only (d) None of the above
The PM Vidyalaxmi scheme, aimed at supporting meritorious students, is facing slow uptake due to technical issues, including login failures and frequent auto logouts
About the PM Vidyalaxmi Scheme:
Details
Objective
A Central Sector Scheme to provide financial assistance to meritorious students pursuing higher education in quality institutions.
Eligible Students
Students gaining admission to the top 860 Quality Higher Education Institutions (QHEIs), including government and private institutions.
Annual Family Income Criteria
Up to ₹8 lakh for students who do not qualify for other government scholarships or interest subsidies.
Eligibility Based on NIRF Rankings
• Top100institutions in overall, category-specific, and domain-specific NIRF lists.
• State government-run institutions ranked 101-200.
• All Central government-governed institutions.
Loan Amounts
• Loans up to ₹7.5 lakh with a 75% credit guarantee.
• For loans up to ₹10 lakh, 3% interest subvention during the moratorium period.
Target Beneficiaries
Approximately 1 lakh students each year, with preference for students in technical or professional courses from government institutions.
Financial Outlay
₹3,600 crore for the period from 2024-25 to 2030-31.
Expected Impact
Benefit for 7 lakh new students through interest subvention during the scheme’s duration.
Application Process
Applications can be submitted via the PM-Vidyalaxmi portal for loans and interest benefits.
[UPSC 2017] What is the purpose of Vidyanjali Yojana’?
1. To enable the famous foreign campuses in India.
2. To increase the quality of education provided in government schools by taking help from the private sector and the community.
3. To encourage voluntary monetary contributions from private individuals and organizations so as to improve the infrastructure facilities for primary and secondary schools.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 2 only* (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only
[UPSC 2018] With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy.
Linkage: India growing energy needs and the role of a specific low-carbon source, which is relevant in the broader context of exploring other low-carbon alternatives like hydrogen for industrial use.
Mentor’s Comment: To achieve a net-zero economy, we need to significantly increase the use of electricity in various sectors. Currently, fossil fuels are used not only to generate electricity but also to provide heat and raw materials for industries. For example, carbon from coal is used in steel production, and hydrogen from natural gas is used to make ammonia for fertilizers. In the steel industry, hydrogen can replace carbon. So, a net-zero economy would involve using more electricity and hydrogen in industrial processes.
Today’s editorial discusses the important role of hydrogen fuel in industries to help achieve a net-zero economy. This content is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
To achieve a net-zero economy, which requires more use of hydrogen, hydrogen production and electricity storage need to work together efficiently.
What is hydrogen’s role in achieving net-zero emissions, particularly in industry?
Replacement for Carbon in Steel-making: Hydrogen can replace carbon (from coal) to reduce iron ore in the steel industry, enabling low-emission steel production. Eg: Jindal Steel is implementing hydrogen-based Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) processes in its steel plants in Angul, India.
Feedstock for Fertilizer Industry: Hydrogen is used to produce ammonia, a key input for fertilizers. Currently sourced from natural gas, it can be replaced with green hydrogen to cut emissions. Eg: Green hydrogen is being utilized in ammonia plants to decarbonize agricultural inputs.
Energy Carrier for Hard-to-Electrify Sectors: Hydrogen provides high-temperature heat and energy where direct electrification is not feasible, such as in cement and chemical industries. Eg: Hydrogen-powered kilns are being explored in cement production to reduce carbon emissions.
Storage and Use of Surplus Renewable Energy: Surplus electricity from solar and wind can produce hydrogen via electrolysis, storing energy for industrial use. Eg: Electrolysers operating during solar peak hours produce hydrogen for later industrial use, aiding in grid balancing.
Enabler of Circular and Low-Carbon Economy: Hydrogen supports closed-loop industrial systems and enables the transition to a low-carbon industrial ecosystem. Eg: Industrial parks are utilizing shared hydrogen infrastructure for multiple processes, promoting sustainability.
Why is nuclear vital for meeting India’s future power needs?
Reason
Explanation
Example
Reliable Base Load Power
Provides continuous, 24/7 electricity, unlike intermittent solar and wind.
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station in Gujarat supplies stable power, reducing reliance on coal.
Low-Carbon Energy Source
Emits very low greenhouse gases, essential for India’s net-zero targets.
One nuclear plant avoids millions of tonnes of CO₂ compared to coal-fired plants of similar capacity.
High Energy Density & Land Efficiency
Produces large energy output from a small land area, ideal for land-scarce regions.
A 700 MW PHWR needs far less space than an equivalent-capacity solar farm.
Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs) initiative supports local nuclear plants for industrial use.
Supports Industrial & Developmental Goals
Meets growing electricity demand from industries, EVs, and digital infrastructure.
Indian Railways is exploring nuclear power to sustainably meet part of its future electricity requirements.
How do electrolysers help avoid flexing nuclear plants?
Utilize Surplus Electricity: Electrolysers consume excess electricity (especially during low demand or high renewable generation), preventing wastage. Eg: During off-peak hours, nuclear plants continue running at full power, and electrolysers convert surplus electricity into hydrogen.
Avoids Technical Challenges of Flexing Nuclear: Flexing (ramping up/down) nuclear plants is technically complex and not cost-effective. Electrolysers provide a flexible load instead. Eg: Countries like France prefer operating electrolysers over reducing nuclear output to balance grid load.
Reduces Need for Electricity Storage: By producing hydrogen instead of storing electricity in batteries, electrolysers lower reliance on expensive energy storage systems. Eg: A hybrid system with electrolysers and minimal battery backup is more economical than large-scale battery-only setups.
Creates Industrial Value from Surplus Power: Hydrogen produced by electrolysers can be used directly in industries like steel and fertilizer, giving value to otherwise curtailed energy. Eg: Surplus nuclear power at night is used to produce hydrogen for ammonia production, supporting the fertilizer sector.
Maintains Economic Efficiency of Nuclear Plants: Electrolysers help nuclear plants operate at full capacity, maximizing their economic return by avoiding part-load inefficiencies. Eg: Operating a 700 MW PHWR continuously at full load ensures lower per-unit cost and higher return on investment.
Which policy changes improve the synergy between hydrogen generation and electricity storage?
Redefining Green Hydrogen as Low-Carbon Hydrogen: Broaden the definition to include hydrogen from nuclear and other low-carbon sources, not just solar/wind. Eg: If hydrogen from nuclear is included under “low-carbon,” it becomes eligible for government incentives and boosts its adoption.
Integrated Planning for Hydrogen and Storage Infrastructure: Encourage policies that promote co-location of electrolysers and battery storage to optimize power use. Eg: A hybrid facility that stores electricity when prices are low and runs electrolysers when solar/wind generation is high.
Incentives for Grid-connected Electrolyser Projects: Offer financial and regulatory support to industries that install grid-responsive electrolysers. Eg: Time-of-use electricity pricing policies that make hydrogen production cheaper during surplus power hours.
Mandating Industrial Use of Green/Low-Carbon Hydrogen: Introduce mandates for sectors like steel and fertilizers to shift partially to low-carbon hydrogen. Eg: A policy requiring steel plants to use 10% green hydrogen by 2030 encourages investment in electrolysers.
Support for Hybrid Hydrogen-Storage Business Models: Develop regulations that allow joint operation and revenue models for battery storage and hydrogen production. Eg: A private power developer earns incentives both for stabilizing the grid (via battery) and producing green hydrogen.
Where has the NPCIL planned the deployment of new 700 MW Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) in India?
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (KAPS), Gujarat: KAPS is already home to two operational 700 MW PHWR units (KAPS-3 and KAPS-4), with plans for further expansion. The successful commissioning of these units has demonstrated the robustness of the 700 MW PHWR design.
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS), Rajasthan: RAPS-7, India’s third indigenously designed 700 MW PHWR, achieved first criticality in September 2024. RAPS-8 is under construction and is expected to be operational by 2026.
Gorakhpur Haryana Anu Vidyut Pariyojana (GHAVP), Haryana: GHAVP is set to host four 700 MW PHWR units, with GHAVP-1 and GHAVP-2 under construction and expected to be operational by 2028 and 2029, respectively.
Way forward:
Accelerating Infrastructure Development: India should fast-track the construction of 700 MW PHWR units across key sites like KAPS, RAPS, and GHAVP, ensuring timely completion to meet future energy demands and reduce reliance on coal.
Policy Support for Hydrogen and Nuclear Synergy: Government policies should incentivize the integration of nuclear power with hydrogen production, promoting hybrid systems that can utilize surplus nuclear energy for green hydrogen generation and enhance industrial decarbonization efforts.
The decline in food prices is seen as a major reason for the drop in inflation. After two rate cuts by the RBI, inflation is expected to stay below 4% in the coming months, which might lead to another rate cut of 50 basis points.
What was India’s retail inflation rate in March?
March 2025 Retail Inflation Rate: India’s retail inflation eased to 3.34% in March 2025, marking the lowest rate since August 2019.
Comparison to Previous Month: This rate represents a decrease from February’s 3.61%, indicating a continued downward trend in inflation.
Primary Contributors to the Decline: The significant drop in food prices, particularly vegetables, eggs, and pulses, contributed to the decline. Eg, vegetable prices fell by 7.04% year-on-year in March.
Why have food prices been a major factor in the decline of retail inflation?
Sharp Decline in Vegetable Prices: Vegetable prices saw a significant drop of 7.04% year-on-year in March 2025, compared to a small increase of 1.07% in February. This sharp fall in vegetable prices helped lower overall food inflation.
Lower Pulses Prices: Pulses prices fell by 2.73% in March, after a smaller 0.35% decrease in February, contributing to reduced food inflation.
Moderation in Overall Food Inflation: Food inflation in March 2025 decreased to 2.69% from 3.75% in February. This marked the lowest food inflation since November 2021, indicating a significant reduction in food price pressures.
Improved Farm Output: The moderation in food prices is partly due to better farm output, which led to a more stable supply of food items, especially vegetables and pulses, easing inflationary pressures.
Government and Central Bank Support: The government’s expectations for above-average monsoon rains in 2025 are likely to boost farm output further, maintaining lower food prices, which will continue to moderate overall inflation.
How did the Reserve Bank of India respond to the easing inflation trend?
Second Consecutive Rate Cut: On April 9, 2025, the RBI reduced the key policy repo rate by 25 basis points to 6.00%, marking its second consecutive rate cut aimed at stimulating economic growth amid moderating inflation.
Shift to Accommodative Stance: The RBI changed its monetary policy stance from “neutral” to “accommodative,” signaling a more supportive approach to economic growth while maintaining vigilance over inflation.
Revised Inflation Forecast: The central bank projected the Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation to average 4% for the fiscal year 2025–26, down from the previous forecast of 4.2%, reflecting improved inflation dynamics.
Lowered GDP Growth Estimate: The RBI revised its GDP growth forecast for the fiscal year to 6.5%, down from 6.7%, acknowledging the challenges posed by global uncertainties and trade tensions.
What risks did the RBI highlight that could impact the inflation outlook?
Global Market Uncertainties: The RBI noted that ongoing global uncertainties, such as trade tensions (like the U.S.-China trade war), could disrupt supply chains and impact inflationary pressures in India. Eg, any further escalation in global trade disputes could lead to higher import costs.
Adverse Weather Conditions: The RBI pointed out that unpredictable weather events, such as unseasonal rains or droughts, could lead to food supply disruptions and push up food prices, affecting overall inflation. Eg, a poor monsoon could lead to shortages in key agricultural products.
Rising Global Commodity Prices: The central bank warned that fluctuations in global commodity prices, including oil and metals, could lead to higher domestic prices, contributing to inflation. Eg, a rise in global crude oil prices could increase transportation and fuel costs in India.
Supply Chain Disruptions: The RBI highlighted the risk of supply-side bottlenecks, especially due to external factors like geopolitical conflicts or supply chain disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. These could raise prices for imported goods and affect domestic inflation. Eg, disruptions in global electronics supply chains could lead to higher prices for tech products.
Core Inflation Pressures: The RBI also noted that core inflation, which excludes volatile items like food and fuel, remained persistently high at 4.1%, signaling that inflationary pressures could be more entrenched in the economy, which poses a risk to the inflation outlook. Eg, rising demand for services could contribute to sustained core inflation.
Way forward:
Strengthen Supply Chain Resilience: The government and RBI should work together to improve supply chain infrastructure and reduce vulnerabilities to global disruptions. This includes addressing logistical bottlenecks, improving domestic production capabilities, and diversifying import sources to mitigate the impact of geopolitical tensions and climate events.
Focus on Sustainable Agricultural Practices: To ensure stable food prices, long-term investments in sustainable farming techniques, irrigation systems, and better farm management practices are crucial. This will not only help stabilize food prices but also contribute to higher farm output and lower volatility in food inflation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linkage: Food inflation and the RBI’s role in controlling it, which is a key aspect of the scenario described in the article.
Recently, the Supreme Court said that hospitals will lose their licences if newborn babies go missing. It also directed High Courts to make sure all pending child trafficking case trials are finished within six months.
What did the Supreme Court warn parents about regarding child trafficking?
Vigilance Against Child Trafficking: The Supreme Court warned parents to be “extremely vigilant” to protect their children from trafficking for purposes such as sexual exploitation, forced labour, and begging. A slight negligence or carelessness could lead to severe consequences.
Consequences of Negligence: The court highlighted that the pain parents experience when losing a child to trafficking is different and more agonising than the loss of a child due to death. The court emphasised that negligence could lead to the lifetime agony of not knowing the whereabouts or fate of the child.
Exploitation of Poor and Vulnerable Families: The court pointed out that traffickers often prey on families from poor sections of society, exploiting their helplessness. This issue is compounded by well-organized trafficking networks that use technology to track victims.
Why does the court believe child trafficking for forced crime is on the rise?
Exploitation of Juvenile Justice Laws: Criminal gangs exploit the legal protection offered to minors under the Juvenile Justice (JJ) Act, using trafficked children for illegal activities like theft, drug peddling, and begging, knowing the penalties are lenient. Eg: According to NCRB 2022, over 5,000 children were apprehended for petty crimes, many suspected to be victims of trafficking and coercion by organized gangs who remain untouched by law.
Demand-Supply Gap in Adoption System: Long waiting periods and a complex legal framework for adoption in India create a black market for child adoption, encouraging trafficking. Eg: As per Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA), while more than 29,000 parents were registered for adoption in 2023, only 3,596 adoptions took place—leading to illegal demand and fueling child trafficking networks.
Weak State Response and Enforcement: The court criticized state governments like Uttar Pradesh for lack of seriousness in tracking trafficking cases and failing to appeal against bail orders granted to traffickers. Eg: In the case heard, 13 accused granted bail by the Allahabad High Court absconded, and their whereabouts remained unknown for months, showing systemic gaps in enforcement.
How did the Supreme Court respond to the bail granted by the Allahabad High Court in the child trafficking case?
Criticized the High Court’s Decision as Callous: The Supreme Court strongly condemned the Allahabad High Court’s decision to grant bail, calling it “very callous” and insensitive given the gravity of the crime. Eg: The bail allowed 13 accused in an inter-State child trafficking racket to go free, most of whom later absconded, frustrating the investigation.
Cancelled the Bail of the Accused: The apex court revoked the bail orders and directed that the accused be taken into custody without delay. Eg: The accused included a nurse at a primary health centre in Chhattisgarh who played a key role in illegal infant sales under the guise of adoption.
Ordered Speedy Trial: The court directed that the trial be completed within six months to ensure justice is not delayed. Eg: This was aimed at avoiding procedural delays and ensuring accountability in crimes involving vulnerable children.
What actions did the Supreme Court direct hospitals to take in cases of missing newborns?
Ensure Complete Protection of Newborns: Hospitals must take full responsibility to safeguard infants immediately after birth, ensuring no unauthorized person can access them. Eg: If a newborn goes missing from a maternity ward, the hospital administration will be held accountable for negligence.
Strict Monitoring and Accountability Measures: Hospitals were warned that if newborns are found trafficked, they could face suspension of license and legal action. Eg: A nurse involved in an infant trafficking racket from a Primary Health Centre in Chhattisgarh was among the accused in the case.
Implement Protocols for Birth and Discharge: The court emphasized the need for strict procedures during childbirth and discharge, including documentation and identity verification. Eg: Hospitals must verify the identity of guardians or parents before handing over the baby, to prevent impersonation or baby-swapping.
Way forward:
Strengthen Surveillance and Inter-agency Coordination: Establish a centralized digital monitoring system linking hospitals, child welfare committees, and law enforcement to track births, adoptions, and missing children in real time.
Community Awareness and Legal Safeguards: Launch nationwide awareness campaigns on child trafficking risks and ensure strict enforcement of child protection laws with fast-track courts for trafficking cases.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Development and welfare schemes for the vulnerable, by its nature, are discriminatory in approach.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
Linkage: Child victims of trafficking are undoubtedly among the most vulnerable. This PYQ examines the nature of welfare schemes for vulnerable populations, which is relevant to the effectiveness of state interventions aimed at preventing child trafficking and rescuing victims.
Recent studies reveal that the Indian Plate is splitting into two, with the lower part detaching and sinking into the Earth’s mantle, a process called delamination, as published by the American Geophysical Union.
About Delamination:
Delamination in tectonic plates refers to the process where the lower part of a continental plate, including the lower crust and/or lithospheric mantle, splits and sinks into the Asthenosphere.
This process is driven by density differences and can lead to rapid uplift, changes in stress regimes, and altered magmatism.
It can occur in various tectonic settings, including compressional zones, subduction zones, and intraplate regions.
The denser lower part of the plate, including the lower crust and/or lithospheric mantle, is less buoyant than the less dense asthenosphere, leading to sinking.
High temperatures can also weaken the lithosphere and facilitate delamination.
Indian Plate and Its Splitting:
The Indian Plate has been colliding with the Eurasian Plate for about 60 million years, causing the formation of the Himalayas and influencing regional seismic activity.
It is shifting northward at a rate of approximately 5 cm per year..
The lower, denser part of the Indian Plate is detaching and sinking into the Earth’s mantle.
This may lead to increased seismic activity due to shifts in tectonic stress.
In regions like the Himalayan collision zone, delamination results in fractures that increase stress in the Earth’s crust, raising the likelihood of seismic events.
[UPSC 2004] Consider the following geological phenomena:
1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault 3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks Which of the above cause earthquakes?
Options:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Recently Google introduced its seventh-generation TPU (Tensor Processing Unit), named Ironwood.
About Ironwood
Ironwood is Google’s seventh-generation Tensor Processing Unit (TPU), designed to accelerate AI model training and inference with improved performance and efficiency.
It builds on previous TPUs, enhancing speed and efficiency for AI workloads.
It has been optimized for complex AI tasks, especially those requiring high-speed data processing for neural networks and deep learning models.
Initially used internally, Ironwood is now available via Google Cloud Platform, allowing businesses to harness its power without investing in dedicated hardware.
What is a TPU?
A TPU is a specialized processor developed by Google to accelerate machine learning tasks, particularly those involving TensorFlow.
TPUs are optimized for tensor operations, crucial for training deep learning models, enabling faster data processing and high efficiency.
How is TPU Different from GPU and CPU?
CPU
GPU
TPU
What is it?
Central Processing Unit – General-purpose processor for various computing tasks.
Graphics Processing Unit – Specialized for parallel processing, initially for graphics rendering.
Tensor Processing Unit – Specialized processor designed by Google for accelerating machine learning tasks, particularly for AI and deep learning.
Specialization
General-purpose tasks (sequential processing)
Parallel processing (graphics, machine learning)
Specialized for AI tasks (tensor computations)
Performance
Slower for AI tasks due to sequential processing
Faster than CPU for parallel tasks
Fastest for AI tasks like matrix multiplication
Efficiency
Versatile but less efficient for AI operations
Energy-efficient for parallel tasks
Highly energy-efficient for machine learning
Best for
Running applications, managing systems
Graphics rendering, machine learning
Deep learning, neural network training
[UPSC 2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
(1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs (3) Disease diagnosis (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
PM recently remembered Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, a nationalist and jurist who famously fought a courtroom battle against British officials involved in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.
Nair’s stand in the courtroom is now a subject of a forthcoming film, Kesari Chapter 2.
About Sir Sankaran Nair:
Born in 1857 in Mankara village, Kerala, Nair came from an aristocratic family.
He was educated at Presidency College in Madras and pursued a law degree.
Nair began his legal career with Sir Horatio Shepherd, Chief Justice of Madras High Court.
In 1897, Nair became the youngest president of the Indian National Congress (Amravati (Mh) Session) and was appointed as a permanent judge of the Madras High Court in 1908.
Role in the Jallianwala Bagh Case:
Nair challenged Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, for his role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), accusing him of following policies that led to the massacre.
O’Dwyer sued Nair in England for defamation. Despite biased British courts, Nair refused to apologize, even when O’Dwyer offered to forgo the £500 penalty.
The trial highlighted the bias in the British judicial system and fuelled Indian resentment against British rule.
Other Contributions:
Nair made progressive rulings, like supporting inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and ruling against treating converts to Hinduism as outcasts.
He supported India’s self-government and played a key role in expanding the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919).
In 1922, Nair critiqued Gandhi‘s methods in his work “Gandhi and Anarchy”.
He helped draft the 1919 constitutional reforms, pointing out flaws in British rule, with many of his suggestions accepted.
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following aroused a wave of popular indignation that led to the massacre by the British at Jallianwala Bagh?
(a) The Arms Act (b) The Public Safety Act (c) The Rowlatt Act (d) The Vernacular Press Act
N4S: This article breaks down the appointment process of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) and what it means for institutional independence. It raises a simple but crucial question—how can an auditor truly be independent if the very government they audit is the one appointing them? The recent Supreme Court intervention has brought this issue back into the spotlight.
UPSC doesn’t just test facts; it expects aspirants to think critically. Take constitutional bodies, for example. A common mistake students make is memorizing provisions like Article 148 (which deals with the CAG’s appointment) without understanding their real-world impact. This article bridges that gap by showing how a lack of transparency in the selection process can weaken financial oversight, allowing government influence to creep in.
What makes this piece stand out is its practical approach. It doesn’t give you an assortment of points that explore roles of stakeholders in the selection process or strengthening the CAG’s powers through legislative changes. This kind of analysis helps aspirants develop a nuanced perspective, which is key to tackling UPSC’s increasingly analytical questions.
PYQ ANCHORING
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) has a very vital role to play. Explain how this is reflected in the method and terms of his appointment as well as the range of powers he can exercise. [2018, GS 2]
“The duty of the Comptroller and Auditor General is not merely to ensure the legality of expenditure but also its propriety.” Comment. [2024,GS 2]
MICROTHEMES: Constitutional Bodies
“I am of the opinion that this dignitary or officer is probably the most important officer in the Constitution of India. He is the one man who is going to see that the expenses voted by Parliament are not exceeded or varied from what has been laid down by Parliament in the Appropriation Act.” – B.R. Ambedkar
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s words highlight the immense responsibility of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) in ensuring financial accountability. But what happens when the very process of appointing the CAG lacks transparency? Can an auditor, chosen solely by the government it audits, remain truly independent?
Recently, the Supreme Court has sought the Centre’s response to a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) questioning the government’s unchecked authority in appointing the CAG. The PIL argues that this practice weakens the Constitution’s promise of institutional independence and calls for a more transparent and accountable selection process.
This raises a crucial debate: Shouldn’t India, like many democracies worldwide, involve multiple stakeholders in choosing its top auditor? If the CAG’s role is to scrutinize government spending, can its effectiveness be ensured without an independent appointment process?
Present Appointment process
Article 148 of the Constitution stipulates that the CAG is to be appointed by the president by warrant under his hand and seal. Generally, a person with administrative experience and knowledge of accounts is chosen for the office.
Criticism Of The Present Appointment Process
This is not the first time the CAG’s appointment process is being criticized. The present appointment procedure has been subject to a few controversies in the past, such as:
The appointment of the CAG is often seen as being influenced by politicalconsiderations, rather than being based solely on merit.
Another issue related to the appointment of CAG is that it is not regulated by any specific law. The appointment process is not transparent and there are no clear criteria for the selection of CAG.
The CAG is appointed for a fixed term of 6 years or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. This has led to criticism that the CAG’s tenure is too short to allow for effective auditing and investigations.
The new Public Interest Litigation (PIL) challenges executive’s sole discretion in selecting the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG). It argues that this process violates the Constitution’s principles of independence in several ways:
Weakening Checks and Balances: The CAG is supposed to independently audit government finances, acting as a watchdog. But if the government itself picks the auditor, the system of checks and balances is weakened. After all, how fair can an audit be if it’s controlled by the very entity being audited?
Threat to Institutional Independence: The Constitution grants the CAG autonomy, but since there’s no transparent process for appointing them, there’s always a risk that they might favor the government that appointed them.
Not in Line with Global Standards: Many democracies make sure that multiple institutions—not just the ruling government—have a say in appointing top auditors. India’s system, where the executive makes the decision alone, is an exception rather than the norm.
Conflict of Interest: The government decides how public money is spent and also picks the official responsible for auditing that spending. This overlap can lead to biased audits, reducing the credibility of the entire process.
Opaque Appointment Process: There’s no clarity on how the government selects the CAG. Without a clear and open method, the process becomes questionable, making people doubt whether the CAG is truly independent.
Risk of Government Influence: The CAG has a fixed tenure, but since the government controls the appointment, there’s always a concern that future career benefits (like post-retirement positions) might influence their decisions.
Loss of Public Trust: If people believe that the CAG isn’t truly independent, they’ll start doubting whether audits are fair and accurate. This can weaken faith in the government’s financial transparency.
Importance of the independence of CAG
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is an independent constitutional body that is responsible for auditing the financial transactions and accounts of the Government of India, as well as the transactions of certain other bodies and organizations that are financed by the government. If the audit has to be conducted without fear or favour and the results have to be credible, an adequate degree of independence from both the legislative and the executive branches of the government is essential.
The independence of the CAG is important for several reasons:
Ensuring accountability: The CAG acts as a check on the executive branch of government, ensuring that public funds are being used appropriately and that government officials are accountable for their actions. By conducting independent audits, the CAG helps to prevent financial mismanagement and corruption.
Maintaining transparency: The CAG’s reports are made public, providing citizens with information about how their tax money is being used. This helps to promote transparency and accountability in government.
Providing an independent perspective: The CAG is independent of the executive branch of government, which means that it can provide an unbiased and objective perspective on government financial transactions.
Improving governance: The CAG’s independent audits can identify areas where government policies and procedures can be improved, which can help to improve the overall effectiveness and efficiency of government.
Enhancing the public trust: The independence of the CAG ensures that the public trust in the government is maintained, as the CAG is free to carry out its mandate without any interference.
Overall, the independence of the CAG is critical for maintaining the integrity and transparency of government financial transactions, promoting good governance, and enhancing public trust in government.
Independence of CAG: A comparision of democracies
Factor
India
United States
United Kingdom
Germany
Canada
Appointment Process
Appointed by the President on PM’s recommendation
Appointed by President, confirmed by Senate
Appointed by the Queen, approved by Parliament
Elected by both houses of Parliament
Appointed by Governor-General on PM’s advice
Tenure & Security
6-year term or until 65, whichever is earlier
15-year term or until resignation
10-year term
Lifetime appointment (or until 65)
10-year term
Removal Process
By impeachment in Parliament
By impeachment (Congress)
By Parliament approval
By Parliamentary decision
By Parliament approval
Budgetary Independence
Funded by government; limited financial autonomy
Independent budget, approved by Congress
Independent funding from Parliament
Funded directly by Parliament
Funded by Parliament
Access to Information
Can request but faces delays in getting data
Strong legal mandate, can subpoena records
Full access to government records
Strongest access, legally protected
Full access to government data
Follow-up on Reports
Limited enforcement power, advisory role
Reports debated in Congress, high impact
Reports discussed in Parliament, taken seriously
Reports trigger immediate parliamentary action
Reports lead to mandatory government response
Influence on Policy
Advisory, government not bound by recommendations
Findings often shape legislative decisions
Direct influence on financial oversight
Strong influence on fiscal policies
Recommendations highly respected
Inference from the above table
Executive Control in Appointment – India’s CAG is appointed solely by the government, unlike the US, UK, and Germany, where Parliament or bipartisan committees play a role, ensuring greater independence.
Shorter Tenure – India’s 6-year term is shorter than the US (15 years), UK (10 years), and Germany (lifetime), making it more vulnerable to political influence.
Limited Financial Autonomy – India’s CAG depends on the government for funding, whereas US, UK, and Germany’s audit bodies are funded directly by Parliament, ensuring financial independence.
Weak Access to Information – India’s CAG faces bureaucratic delays in obtaining records, whereas the US GAO has subpoena power, and Germany’s BRH has unrestricted access to government data.
Lack of Mandatory Follow-Up – CAG reports in India are advisory, whereas in UK, Germany, and Canada, the government must respond, making audits more impactful.
Less Policy Influence – In India, CAG reports spark debates but rarely lead to action, while in US, UK, and Germany, audit findings often result in legislative changes.
Weaker Removal Process Control – Though CAG’s impeachment process is strict, other democracies involve Parliament in removals, ensuring better checks against misuse of power.
An assessment of CAG’s Appointment process
For the first four decades after independence, the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General appeared to have functioned in an efficient yet low-key manner. Its impact was also limited. This was primarily due to the following structural reasons:
Limited autonomy: The CAG is understaffed and under-resourced. It is not completely autonomous, as it is dependent on the government for funding and resources. The CAG’s independence is also affected by the fact that its budget and staff are provided by the government, which can leave it vulnerable to political pressure This has affected its ability to conduct independent audits and investigations.
Lack of legal powers: The CAG does not have the legal powers to enforce compliance with its recommendations, which limits the impact of its audits.
Lack of transparency: The CAG is not accountable to any other body, which makes it difficult to hold it accountable for its actions and decisions. The CAG’s reports are not always made public, which can limit transparency and accountability.
Highly centralized nature: The highly centralised nature of the organisation has also hampered its ability to function in a country as vast and complex as the Indian Union. Although the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General has a vast number of staff, especially when contrasted to its counterparts in countries like the UK and the US, it revolves around the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General located in Delhi and suffers from an overly centralised managerial style.
These structural shortcomings created the following issues in the functioning of the CAG:
Limited access to information: The CAG faces difficulty in obtaining information from government departments and agencies, which impedes its ability to conduct effective audits. For example, In 2012, the CAG faced difficulty in obtaining information from the Ministry of Defence regarding the procurement of fighter jets. This made it difficult for the CAG to conduct a comprehensive audit of the procurement process.
Political interference: The CAG may be subject to political pressure and interference, which can affect its ability to conduct independent audits. In 2013, the CAG faced allegations of political interference when it audited the allocation of 2G spectrum licenses. The report was criticized by the ruling government, which led to allegations that the CAG’s findings were politically motivated.
Lack of resources: The CAG may be under-resourced, which can limit its ability to conduct comprehensive audits and investigations. In 2014, the CAG faced criticism for not having enough resources to conduct a comprehensive audit of the implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS).
Limited powers: The CAG does not have the power to enforce compliance with its recommendations, which has limited the impact of its audits. In 2015, the CAG’s report on the implementation of the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) highlighted several issues with the implementation of the scheme, but the CAG did not have the power to enforce compliance with its recommendations.
Time-consuming: The auditing process is time-consuming as it involves gathering information from various departments, which can take a long time to complete. For example, In 2020, CAG took more than a year to complete its audit of the GST compensation and collections, which was submitted to the parliament in 2021. The delay was caused by the time-consuming process of gathering data from various government departments and agencies.
However, despite these shortcomings in its structure, the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General has played a significant checking and controlling function, especially in the last few decades. Some of its successes include:
Bofors Scam: In 1989 an audit report on the Bofors scam shook the foundations of the Congress government led by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, leading to the walk-out of the entire opposition in Parliament.
Fodder Scam: In 1996 an audit of the Bihar government exposed the ‘fodder scam’, which eventually led to the resignation of Chief Minister Lalu Yadav.
Irregularities in Procurement process: In 2001 an audit report raised questions about the way the army procured goods for use during the Kargil war of 1999. It created doubts about the overall procurement process employed by the Ministry of Defence. These reports garnered a lot of public attention but resulted in little by way of actual prosecutions and convictions of those who were responsible for the fraudulent acts.
These episodes pointed to the important role performed by the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General. It generated both publicity and a degree of credibility for the office in the minds of the press and the public. These would become crucial aids that later occupants of the office could draw upon to shine a light on acts of corruption in public life.
Way Forward: Ensuring a Transparent and Accountable CAG Appointment
To uphold the independence of India’s top auditor, the appointment process must be more transparent and aligned with global best practices.
A Balanced Selection Process: India can take inspiration from the UK, USA, and Canada, where multiple stakeholders, including opposition leaders and parliamentary committees, are involved in selecting the auditor. A search committee comprising the Prime Minister, Home Minister, and Leader of the Opposition could ensure a fairer selection.
Expanding CAG’s Role: The CAG should also audit Panchayati Raj Institutions and state-funded societies to enhance financial oversight.
Strengthening Powers: Like in New Zealand, CAG should have the authority to hold the government and third parties accountable for financial losses.
Reforming the CAG Act: The 1971 Act should be amended to allow pre-audit of defense expenditures above ₹3,000 crore and grant State Auditors the status of High Court judges.
Ensuring Timely Access to Records: Similar to the RTI Act, records should be provided within a set timeframe (e.g., seven days), with strict accountability for delays.
#BACK2BASICS: INDEPENDENCE OF CAG
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is an independent constitutional body that is responsible for auditing the financial transactions and accounts of the Government of India, as well as the transactions of certain other bodies and organizations that are financed by the government. If the audit has to be conducted without fear or favour and the results have to be credible, an adequate degree of independence from both the legislative and the executive branches of the government is essential.
Article 148 of the Constitution ensures the independence of the CAG in the following ways:
Expenditures Charged on the CFI: The salary of the CAG and other expenditures for the administration of his office, including all salaries, allowances, and pension of persons serving in that office, are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and are not votable by Parliament.
Rights cant be changed to the disadvantage: The salary and the rights in respect of leave of absence, pension, or age of retirement of the CAG are not to be changed to his/her disadvantage during his/her tenure.
Not eligible for reappointment: The CAG is not be eligible for further office either under the Government of India or under any state government after ceasing to hold his/her office.
Secutity of tenure: The CAG enjoys security of tenure. Though appointed by the president, he/she does not hold office at the pleasure of the president as he/she can be removed from office only by the special procedure laid down in the Constitution.
Conditions of service: The president prescribes the conditions of service of the persons in the Indian Audits and Accounts Department and the administrative powers of the CAG after consulting the CAG.
