The Union Environment Ministry’s 2015 policy mandating the installation of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) equipment in all of India’s 537 coal-fired plants has been scrutinised by a recent study commissioned by the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser.
Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
About Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) in Power Plants
FGD is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO₂) from flue gases in coal-fired power plants.
The process involves passing exhaust gases through a scrubbing system using absorbents like ammonia, sodium sulfite, or limestone.
Methods:
Wet Limestone Scrubbing: Gases pass through a scrubber tower with a slurry of water and limestone.
Dry Sorbent Injection: Uses a dry alkaline agent to neutralize SO₂.
Sea Water-Based Systems: Utilizes seawater’s natural alkalinity to absorb SO₂.
FGD can remove up to 95% of sulfur dioxide, reducing SO₂ emissions significantly.
Reduces sulfur emissions, major contributors to acid rain and air pollution.
FGD Gypsum, a byproduct, can be used in industries like cement manufacturing.
Recent Study on FGD in Power Plants
A study by NIAS critiques India’s FGD policy, recommending limited FGD installations for plants using imported or high-sulfur coal.
92% of coal in Indian plants has low sulfur content (0.3%-0.5%), meaning FGD may not significantly improve local air quality.
Widespread FGD installation could increase power and water consumption, and result in 69 million tonnes of additional CO₂ emissions by 2030.
Removing SO₂ (cooling agent) while increasing CO₂ emissions may accelerate climate change.
Recommendations: Installing electrostatic precipitators (₹25 lakh per MW) can reduce 99% of particulate matter (PM), offering a more cost-effective and impactful solution.
[UPSC 2024] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which one of the following is the largest source of sulphur dioxide emissions?
Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) has partnered with IIT Bombay to launch a pilot project on Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, integrating electric vehicles into the power grid.
About V2G Technology:
V2G enables Electric Vehicles (EVs) to send power back to the grid when not in use, turning EV batteries into decentralized energy storage devices.
It involves two key functions:
Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V): Power is transferred from the grid to charge the EV.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): Power is sent from the EV back to the grid, making the vehicle a distributed energy source.
Smart charging strategies optimize charging based on grid demand and renewable energy availability, enhancing grid stability and enabling renewable energy integration.
About the KSEB-IIT Bombay V2G Pilot Project:
This pilot aims to assess EVs’ role in supporting the power grid, especially during peak demand periods when solar energy is unavailable.
Kerala’s growth in EV adoption and rooftop solar installations has raised concerns about increased electricity demand, particularly in the evenings.
The project will explore the feasibility of using EVs to reduce grid strain and optimize the use of renewable energy.
Applications of V2G:
Grid Support: EVs can supply power back to the grid during high-demand periods, improving grid stability.
Solar Energy Integration: V2G encourages charging during the day when solar power is abundant, and storing excess energy to supply the grid at night.
Emergency Power Source: EVs can act as backup power during crises or natural disasters, providing electricity to communities.
[UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is the exhaust pipe emission from Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles powered by hydrogen?
Scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have found signs of possible life on exoplanet K2-18 b by detecting gases usually produced by Earth’s biological processes.
Key findings of the Recent Study:
Scientists detected significant biosignatures in the atmosphere of K2-18 b, including dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS).
These gases, on Earth, are primarily produced by marine phytoplankton.
High concentrations of these gases suggest the possibility of microbial life, particularly in the planet’s oceans.
However, researchers caution that this is not definitive proof of life but a potential biosignature indicating biological processes.
Further studies and observations are needed to confirm whether these gases are biologically produced or the result of other processes.
About James Webb Space Telescope (JWST):
JWST is a joint venture between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) launched in December 2021.
It is an orbiting infrared observatory that will complement and extend the discoveries of the Hubble Space Telescope, with longer wavelength coverage and greatly improved sensitivity.
Webb was formerly known as the “Next Generation Space Telescope” (NGST), and it was renamed in 2002 after a former NASA administrator, James Webb.
It isa large infrared telescope with an approximately 6.5-meter primary mirror.
JWST is positioned at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 5 million km away.
It consists of a mirror, spanning 6.5 meters in diameter compared to Hubble’s 2.4 meters, and its specialised instruments optimised for infrared observations.
Key Objectives:
JWST observes deeper into the universe than Hubble.
Observes celestial objects from earlier epochs.
Enables the detection of light from the universe’s earliest stars, dating back over 13.5 billion years.
[UPSC 2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to:
Options: (a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA*
The 6th edition of India-Uzbekistan Joint Military Exercise DUSTLIK-6 commenced at the Foreign Training Node at Aundh in Pune, Maharashtra.
About Exercise DUSTLIK
Exercise DUSTLIK is an annual event alternating between India and Uzbekistan.
It is named after Dustlik, a town in the Jizzakh region of Uzbekistan.
The first edition of the exercise was held in 2019 near Tashkent.
The 5th edition was held in Termez District, Uzbekistan.
4th edition held in Pithoragarh, India, in February 2023.
Objectives and Focus Areas:
Focus on physical fitness, joint planning, and tactical drills.
Emphasis on special arms skills and multi-domain operations.
Tactical drills include establishing command posts, intelligence centers, heliborne operations, and room intervention.
Back2Basics: India’s bilateral exercises with Central Asian Countries
Country
Exercise
Kazakhstan
Ex PRABAL DOSTYK, Ex KAZIND
Kyrgyzstan
Ex KHANJAR
Mongolia
Ex NOMADIC ELEPHANT
Tajikistan
Ex Farkhor
[UPSC 2008] Hand-in-Hand 2007’, a joint anti-terrorism military training was held by the officers of the Indian Army and officers of the Army of which one of the following countries?
The debate over redrawing electoral boundaries has heated up again, especially with Tamil Nadu Chief Minister Stalin strongly opposing it. With elections around the corner, he is presenting himself as a key voice against the BJP-led central government, which he sees as favoring northern states. Meanwhile, the Union Home Minister has tried to reassure southern states that they won’t lose out in the process and will get a fair share if more seats are added.
JOINT ACTION COMMITTEE MEETING ON FAIR DELIMITATION
The inaugural meeting of the Joint Action Committee (JAC) on Fair Delimitation took place on March 22, 2025, in Chennai. This significant gathering included leaders from various States, notably four Chief Ministers.
Key Demands and Concerns
The JAC demands an extension of the freeze on parliamentary constituencies, aligning with a similar resolution passed in Tamil Nadu, suggesting a 30-year extension.
This freeze, historically implemented through the 42nd Amendment and extended via the 84th Amendment until 2026, prevents states with effective family planning from facing reduced representation.
The issue is particularly relevant in the South, but is not solely a regional concern.
Participants and Views
Hosted by Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin, with attendance from Kerala, Telangana, Karnataka, Punjab, and Odisha leaders.
Odisha’s former Chief Minister Naveen Patnaik, via online address, supported avoiding penalties for states with effective population control.
Proposal by K.T. Rama Rao to consider a State’s fiscal contribution in the delimitation process.
Recommendations and Steps
The Union government should initiate nationwide consultations and engage a wide range of parties before proceeding with the Delimitation Commission.
Importance of inclusive dialogue before the next Census is conducted.
CONCERNS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES
Concern
Explanation
Example
Fear of Losing Representation
Since Southern states have a lower population growth compared to the North, they might end up with fewer Lok Sabha seats if delimitation is done purely based on population.
Kerala might not get any additional seats, Tamil Nadu may see only a 26% increase, while Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh could get 79% more seats.
Gerrymandering
Southern states worry about unfair manipulation of electoral boundaries to benefit certain parties or groups, leading to distorted representation.
In Nepal (2015), the Terai region, despite having 50% of the population, got fewer seats than the hill regions because the constituency demarcation favored geography over population, benefiting the hill elite.
Threat to Federalism
More seats in Northern states could lead to higher central allocations per representative, increasing the financial burden on Southern states. Lower political representation may force them to accept policies they see as unfair.
Southern states may have less say in national policies despite contributing significantly to India’s economy.
Discouragement to Good Governance
States that have successfully controlled their population may be punished with fewer seats, whereas high-fertility states could get rewarded with more representation.
Some politicians have even suggested incentives for larger families, which goes against the idea of population control.
North-South Division
A growing sense of political and economic imbalance could lead to demands for greater autonomy or special status for Southern states, deepening regional divides.
Could lead to calls for special status or greater autonomy for South Indian states.
Skewed Resource Allocation
With more MPs from Northern states, they could have greater influence over central fund allocation, while Southern states might get fewer resources despite better governance.
The Finance Commission (FC) uses population as a key factor for fund allocation, which can disadvantage Southern states.
Weakening Regional Parties
A shift in political power towards the North could benefit national parties with a stronger base there, reducing the influence of Southern regional parties.
Regional parties in the South may lose influence, changing the political landscape of the region.
Way Forward
Fair Seat Distribution: No state should lose its current number of seats. Instead, a balanced approach should be used that considers not just population but also development, economy, and governance quality to ensure fair representation.
Fair Share of Funds: The way central funds are distributed should be revised so that Southern states don’t face financial losses. Strengthening inter-state councils can help in making policies more balanced.
Building Consensus: A constitutional review panel should be set up to address concerns about delimitation. People also need to be made aware that representation isn’t just about population size, but other factors too.
Stronger Role in Rajya Sabha: To make up for any potential loss of Lok Sabha seats, Southern states should get more representation in the Rajya Sabha.
#BACK2BASICS: FACTS RELATED TO DELIMITATION
Category
Details
About Delimitation
Delimitation is the process of fixing the number of seats and boundaries of territorial constituencies in each state for the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies. It is conducted by the Delimitation Commission, which is set up under an Act of Parliament.
Delimitation Commission
A high-powered three-member body whose orders have the force of law and cannot be challenged in court. – Comprises two Supreme Court or High Court judges, one appointed as chairman by the central government, and the Chief Election Commissioner as an ex-officio member. – Its orders are presented to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies but cannot be modified. – It has the powers of a civil court. – It has been set up four times till February 2024: 1952, 1963, 1973, and 2002.
Rationale Behind Delimitation
Each state is divided into territorial constituencies in a manner that ensures the population-to-seat ratio is uniform across the state. – Ensures equal representation among different states and within constituencies of the same state.
Constitutional Provisions
– Article 82: Provides for readjustment of Lok Sabha seats and division of states into constituencies after every census. – Article 170: Defines the composition of Legislative Assemblies.
Related Amendments
Since population-based seat allocation benefits high-population states, amendments were made to balance representation and incentivize population control efforts. – 42nd Amendment Act, 1976: Froze Lok Sabha seat allocation and constituency division at the 1971 level until 2000. – 84th Amendment Act, 2001: Extended the freeze for another 25 years until 2026. – 87th Amendment Act, 2003: Allowed delimitation based on the 2001 census but did not change the number of seats or constituencies.
Judicial Review
In the Kishorchandra Chhanganlal Rathod Case (2024), the Supreme Court ruled that an order by the Delimitation Commission can be reviewed if it is found to be arbitrary and unconstitutional.
[UPSC 2018] What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?
Linkage: A “trade war” means a situation where countries, like the U.S. and China, put extra taxes (tariffs) on each other’s products. In this article, we saw how Trump delayed these reciprocal tariffs for most countries but kept them in place for China.
Mentor’s Comment: In the three months since U.S. President Donald Trump introduced his “America First” trade policy—using trade measures to pressure other countries into giving concessions—there are signs it could seriously harm the global economy. A key part of this plan was the introduction of “reciprocal tariffs” to counter what Trump saw as unfair trade practices by other nations. However, on April 9, the day these tariffs were supposed to begin, Trump changed his mind and delayed their implementation by 90 days for all 57 target countries—except China.
Today’s editorial discusses how Trump’s views on reciprocal tariffs have changed over time. This topic is useful for General Studies Paper 2 (International Relations) and Paper 3 (Indian Economy).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, China’s unexpected response to Trump’s trade war showed its smart long-term planning. By preparing for risks from aggressive trade partners, it managed to handle one of the worst trade tensions ever.
What are the main features of Trump’s “America First” trade policy?
Imposition of Reciprocal Tariffs: The U.S. aimed to impose tariffs on imports from countries that had higher duties on American goods. Eg: A 34% tariff was imposed on Chinese goods, leading to retaliation from China.
Push for Bilateral Trade Deals: Trump preferred one-on-one negotiations over multilateral agreements to secure favorable terms. Eg: He delayed tariffs for 90 days to pressure 57 countries into bilateral deals.
Targeting Trade Deficits: The policy aimed to reduce U.S. trade deficits by demanding more access to foreign markets. Eg: The U.S. demanded that India open its agricultural market and relax patent laws.
Why was the implementation of “reciprocal tariffs” postponed?
Facilitating U.S.-India Trade Negotiations: The U.S. paused the tariffs to create a conducive environment for bilateral trade discussions with India. Both nations aim to finalize the first phase of a trade agreement by autumn 2025, targeting a bilateral trade volume of $500 billion by 2030. Eg: India is contemplating significant tariff reductions on over half of its $23 billion worth of U.S. imports, marking its most substantial tariff cut in years.
Avoiding Economic Disruption for Indian Exporters: The tariff pause offers relief to Indian exporters, particularly in sectors like seafood, which would have been adversely affected by increased duties. Eg: Indian shrimp exporters, who rely heavily on the U.S. market, benefit from the temporary suspension, allowing continued access without additional tariffs.
Strategic Focus on U.S.-China Trade Tensions: By postponing tariffs on India and other countries, the U.S. can concentrate its trade enforcement efforts on China, where it has imposed tariffs as high as 125%. Eg: The U.S. maintains a 10% reciprocal tariff on Indian goods, contrasting with the significantly higher tariffs on Chinese imports.
Encouraging Indian Concessions in Trade Talks: The delay serves as an incentive for India to make concessions in ongoing trade negotiations, such as reducing tariffs and increasing imports of U.S. goods. Eg: India has agreed to lower tariffs on products like motorcycles and whiskey and to increase purchases of American defense and energy goods.
Preventing Market Volatility and Economic Uncertainty: Immediate implementation of reciprocal tariffs could have led to market instability and economic uncertainty. The pause allows for a more measured approach to trade policy. Eg: Following the announcement of the tariff pause, Indian stock markets rebounded, with the Nifty 50 and BSE Sensex indices experiencing significant gains.
What hurdles does the U.S. face in negotiating trade deals with countries like India?
Tariff and Regulatory Differences: India maintains higher tariffs on several U.S. goods, and there are strict regulations in sectors like agriculture, dairy, and e-commerce that clash with U.S. interests. Eg: The U.S. has long pushed for greater market access for its dairy products, but India restricts imports based on religious and cultural norms around animal feed.
Concerns Over Intellectual Property (IP) and Data Localization: The U.S. demands stronger IP protection and opposes India’s data localization rules that require storing data within Indian borders—citing it as a barrier to digital trade. Eg: U.S. tech giants like Amazon and Mastercard have raised concerns over India’s personal data protection policies impacting cross-border data flows.
Divergent Strategic and Economic Priorities: India prioritizes strategic autonomy and developmental needs, which often conflict with U.S. demands for liberalized trade and investment norms. Eg: India walked out of the RCEP partly due to fears of opening up markets too quickly, showing its cautious stance in trade liberalization.
How can global economies respond to U.S. trade unilateralism?
Strengthening Regional Trade Blocs and Multilateral Agreements: Countries can reduce dependence on the U.S. by forming or deepening trade alliances within regions to maintain economic stability. Eg: The EU signed trade agreements with Japan and Mercosur to diversify away from U.S.-centric trade after tariff tensions.
Filing Disputes Through the WTO Framework: Nations can challenge unfair U.S. tariffs or trade actions at the World Trade Organization to uphold rules-based trade. Eg: The EU, China, and others filed WTO complaints against U.S. steel and aluminum tariffs imposed under national security grounds.
Promoting Strategic Bilateral Partnerships: Economies can build stronger bilateral trade ties with other major players to counterbalance U.S. influence and create alternative economic hubs. Eg: China and ASEAN deepened trade through the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), enhancing trade flows in Asia-Pacific.
Way forward:
Revitalise Multilateralism and WTO Reforms: Global economies should work together to strengthen the rules-based trading system and push for WTO reforms to address dispute resolution and emerging trade challenges.
Promote Inclusive and Balanced Trade Partnerships: Encourage fair, equitable trade agreements that consider development concerns of the Global South, ensuring that trade fosters mutual growth rather than unilateral advantage.
During the ongoing U.S.-China tariff war, the Trump administration announced that smartphones, computers, and some electronics would be excluded from the 125% tariffs, easing concerns for firms like Apple.
What decision did the Trump administration make regarding smartphones and computers in the tariff war with China?
Exemption from High Tariff Slab: The Trump administration decided that smartphones, computers, and certain other electronics would not be subjected to the 125% reciprocal tariffs on China. Eg: Apple products like iPhones and MacBooks were spared from the highest tariff bracket.
Reclassification to Lower Tariff Bucket: These items were instead moved to a lower tariff category of 20%, which was presented as a strategic decision, not a full exemption. Eg: Laptops and other consumer electronics faced a reduced tariff rate instead of the originally proposed higher one.
Why are semiconductors considered critical for the United States’ national security and economy?
Foundation of Modern Technology: Semiconductors power essential devices from smartphones and laptops to defense systems and AI tools, making them indispensable to both daily life and strategic operations. Eg: Military drones and radar systems rely on advanced microchips for data processing.
Supply Chain Vulnerability: Heavy reliance on a few countries, especially Taiwan, for chip manufacturing exposes the U.S. to supply disruptions and geopolitical risks. Eg: The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted global chip shortages, affecting car and electronics industries.
Need for Technological Sovereignty: Boosting domestic semiconductor production ensures technological leadership, economic resilience, and reduces dependence on potentially hostile nations. Eg: New tariffs and subsidies aim to encourage U.S.-based chip manufacturing to reduce reliance on China.
Where is most of the world’s semiconductor manufacturing currently concentrated?
Taiwan: Taiwan leads global semiconductor manufacturing, especially in advanced chips, due to companies like TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company). Eg: TSMC produces over 50% of the world’s advanced semiconductors.
South Korea: A major player in memory chip production, with giants like Samsung and SK Hynix dominating the market. Eg: Samsung is a global leader in DRAM and NAND flash memory chips.
China: Rapidly expanding its semiconductor industry through state support, though still dependent on foreign technology for advanced manufacturing. Eg: SMIC (Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation) is China’s largest chipmaker but faces U.S. export restrictions.
When did the US’s share in global semiconductor manufacturing decline significantly?
Since the 1990s: The U.S. share fell from 37% in 1990 to 12% by 2020, as production increasingly shifted to Asia due to lower costs and better infrastructure. Eg: Companies like TSMC (Taiwan) and Samsung (South Korea) became dominant players.
Post-globalization era: With the rise of global supply chains and outsourcing, the U.S. focused more on chip design than manufacturing, leading to a production gap. Eg: Firms like Intel design chips in the U.S. but get them manufactured overseas.
Can India grab the semiconductor supply chain?
India has strong potential to become a major player in the global semiconductor supply chain.
Government Push & Incentives: India has launched a ₹76,000 crore (US $10 billion) semiconductor incentive scheme to attract global chipmakers and boost domestic production. Eg: Micron is investing $2.75 billion in a chip assembly plant in Gujarat under this scheme.
Strategic Location & Talent Pool: India offers a large, skilled workforce in electronics and IT, and is strategically located between key markets like Southeast Asia and Europe. Eg: Tata Group is setting up a semiconductor assembly and testing unit in Assam to tap both local and export markets.
Global Diversification Needs: Countries and companies want to reduce reliance on Taiwan and China due to geopolitical tensions. India is being seen as a reliable alternative. Eg: U.S. firm Lam Research plans to train 60,000 Indian engineers and invest $1 billion to strengthen India’s semiconductor ecosystem.
Way forward:
Accelerate Ecosystem Development: Strengthen infrastructure for fabs, ensure reliable electricity and water supply, and support R&D and design capabilities to build a complete semiconductor ecosystem.
Foster Global Collaborations: Partner with global semiconductor leaders for technology transfer, workforce training, and joint ventures to fast-track domestic capability and integration into the global supply chain.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?
Linkage: The basic idea behind a tariff war is protectionism, where countries impose taxes on imports to shield their own industries from foreign competition. In this case, India’s manufacturing sector could benefit from the trade war between the USA and China.
On Wednesday, the Supreme Court raised concerns about certain parts of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025.
What provisions of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 are under Supreme Court scrutiny?
Derecognition of “Waqf-by-user” Properties: The Act removes recognition of properties declared Waqf through long-standing community use without formal documentation. Eg: Jama Masjid in Delhi, built centuries ago without a registered deed, is a Waqf-by-user property that may lose its legal status.
Inclusion of Non-Muslims in Waqf Bodies: The Act allows non-Muslims to be appointed as ex-officio members in the Central and State Waqf Boards. Eg: A Hindu bureaucrat could be appointed to a Waqf Board that oversees Islamic charitable endowments.
State Power to Decide Waqf Status: The Act empowers a government officer to determine whether a property is Waqf or government-owned and restricts its use during inquiry. Eg: A dargah used by the community for generations may be prevented from religious use while the officer assesses its legal status.
Religious Identity Condition for Creating Waqf: The Act requires an individual to be a practising Muslim for at least five years to dedicate property as Waqf. Eg: A recent Muslim convert wanting to donate land for a madrasa may be barred if they haven’t completed five years in the faith.
Why did CJI Khanna raise concerns over derecognising Waqf-by-user properties?
Historical Origin Without Documentation: Many mosques and Waqf properties were established centuries ago, long before land registration laws existed, making it impossible to produce formal documents today. Eg: Jama Masjid, constructed in the 17th century, lacks a registered sale deed but has been in religious use for generations.
Established Legal Recognition in Earlier Laws: Previous versions of the Waqf Act recognised Waqf-by-user, and removing this category retroactively undermines settled legal rights and community practices. Eg: Properties that were protected under earlier Waqf Acts may now be denotified, leading to legal uncertainty and community unrest.
Risk of Large-Scale Disputes and Displacement: The derecognition could lead to widespread property disputes, potential communal tensions, and loss of religious spaces vital to Muslim communities. Eg: In states like West Bengal, such provisions have already triggered protests and violence over fears of losing religious sites.
Who can be ex-officio members in Waqf bodies as per the CJI’s interim proposal?
Non-Muslims Permitted as Ex-Officio Members: CJI Khanna suggested that while all appointed members of Waqf Boards and the Central Waqf Council should be Muslims, non-Muslims could serve as ex-officio members. Eg: A non-Muslim District Collector could be included in a State Waqf Board as an ex-officio member due to their administrative role.
Maintaining Muslim Majority in Waqf Bodies: The proposal aims to ensure that the religious character of Waqf institutions is preserved by maintaining a Muslim majority among members, with non-Muslims participating only in an ex-officio capacity. This approach seeks to balance administrative inclusivity with religious autonomy. Eg: In a 22-member Central Waqf Council, if 8 members are Muslims and 2 are non-Muslim judges serving ex-officio, the inclusion of additional non-Muslim members could shift the majority, raising concerns about the council’s religious representation.
How did the petitioners argue that the Act violates Article 26 of the Constitution?
State Cannot Restrict Religious Institutions or Charitable Intentions: The petitioners argued that Article 26 guarantees the right to establish and maintain religious and charitable institutions. The new Act mandates a person to prove they have been a practising Muslim for five years before declaring a Waqf, which interferes with this right. Eg: If a devout Muslim wishes to dedicate their land for charitable Islamic purposes but cannot prove five years of religious practice, their right under Article 26 is restricted.
Disrupts Traditional Waqf Practices: Recognizing Waqf-by-user dismisses historical Waqfs without documents, disrupting long-standing religious practices. Eg: A 17th-century mosque used by the community could be denotified despite its religious use.
Enables Excessive State Interference: Giving the state power over Waqf status and allowing non-Muslims in Waqf bodies undermines community autonomy. Eg: A religious property may be declared government-owned without judicial review, violating institutional independence.
Way forward:
Preserve Historical Waqf Rights: Legal provisions should be revised to recognize and protect Waqf-by-user properties, ensuring that historically significant religious sites are not unduly denotified, thereby maintaining continuity with longstanding community practices.
Ensure Religious Autonomy in Waqf Management: The state should limit its interference in Waqf management by maintaining Muslim-majority representation on Waqf bodies while allowing non-Muslims to serve in an ex-officio capacity, balancing inclusivity with respect for religious autonomy.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss India as a secular state and compare with the secular principles of the US constitution.
Linkage: Secular nature of the Indian state and its interaction with religious institutions and laws governing them, such as the Waqf Act. The debate over the amendment and the Supreme Court’s intervention highlight the complexities of the state’s role in religious matters within a secular framework.
GS Paper 1: Indian Society, Geography: Distribution of Key Natural Resources, Industrialization, Urbanization and Globalization
Note4Students: Examine the geographical distribution of critical minerals like lithium and cobalt, emphasizing Africa’s role in India’s supply chain and industrialization efforts.
Microtheme : Natural Resource Potential
GS Paper 2: Governance, International Relations, and Social Justice: Effect of Policies and Politics of Developed and Developing Countries on India’s Interests, Government Policies and Interventions
Note4Students: Analyze India’s partnerships with African nations to secure critical minerals and how geopolitical competition, especially with China, affects mineral access.
GS Paper 3: Economy, Environment, Science & Technology, Security: Industrial Growth, Infrastructure Development, Sustainable Development, Energy Security, Inclusive Growth and Development
Note4Students: Study India’s efforts to boost domestic mineral production, develop mining infrastructure in Africa, and secure critical minerals for renewable energy and battery technologies.
Microtheme: Mining and Erosion
GS Paper 4: Ethics, Integrity, and Aptitude: Corporate Social Responsibility and Ethics in Economic Development, Ethics in Governance and International Relations, Environmental Ethics
Note4Students: Evaluate India’s ethical approach to responsible mining and fair-trade agreements with African nations, promoting sustainable development.
Microtheme : Applied Ethics
India’s Critical Mineral Mission
Launched in the Union Budget 2024-25 to secure critical minerals essential for India’s economy.
Focuses on three key areas: expanding domestic production, prioritizing recycling, and acquiring overseas assets.
The amendment to the Mines and Minerals Act (1957) allowed private sector participation by removing six minerals from the atomic list.
KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Limited) signed a lithium mining agreement with Argentina in January 2024, securing five blocks in the Catamarca province.
However, India’s capacity for mineral exploration and processing is still developing. It also lacks manufacturing expertise in battery components, requiring upskilling of its workforce.
Role of Africa
Role
Description
Abundant Mineral Reserves
Africa holds 30% of the world’s critical mineral reserves, making it crucial for India’s supply chain.
Strong Trade Relations
India’s trade with Africa totaled $98 billion in 2022-23, with $43 billion coming from mining and minerals, reflecting strong existing partnerships.
Energy Investments
India imports 34 million tonnes of oil from Africa, accounting for 15% of its total demand, and invests $2 billion in African solar energy projects.
Strategic Projects
India has signed agreements with Zambia and Zimbabwe for geological mapping, mineral exploration, and capacity building in the mining sector.
Value Addition Focus
African nations are moving towards value addition, offering opportunities for India to support local mineral processing and industrialization efforts.
Opportunities for Collaboration: Enhancing Value Addition
Geological Mapping and Infrastructure Development: India’s expertise in mining infrastructure can help Africa move from a ‘pit-to-port’ model to a value-added mineral processing model. India’s MoUs with Zambia and Zimbabwe to collaborate on geological mapping, mineral deposit modeling, and infrastructure projects are steps in this direction.
Capacity Building: India’s Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program, which has trained 40,000 Africans in 10 years, can further be used to upskill the workforce for Africa’s critical mineral extraction and processing sectors.
Technological Collaboration: Indian start-ups specializing in mining technologies, tools for exploration, and environmental conservation can provide services that accelerate exploration and extraction in an eco-friendly manner. These innovations align with African governments’ goals to add value to their mineral resources and ensure sustainable development.
China’s Role in the Critical Mineral Supply Chain
China’s strategic positioning in mineral-rich Africa, aligned with its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), creates a complex geopolitical landscape, forcing India to balance resource dependencies while strengthening its own supply chains.
Dominance in Global Value Chain: China controls the critical mineral supply chain, from asset acquisition to advanced processing and manufacturing, which presents economic and security risks for India.
Influence in Africa: Chinese mining companies dominate cobalt mining, particularly in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), which is home to the world’s largest cobalt reserves.
Strategic Investments: China’s $7 billion “minerals-for-infrastructure” deal with the DRC secures resources vital for global energy transitions, particularly electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy technologies.
Challenges for India: India faces tough competition from China for access to critical minerals. China’s established infrastructure and supply chain advantage make it difficult for India to secure these minerals independently.
Way Forward: Strategic and Sustainable Partnerships
Responsible Mining Practices: To differentiate itself from China’s heavy resource extraction methods, India must promote responsible mining practices. This includes reducing environmental degradation, respecting local communities, and offering fair trade agreements that benefit African economies.
Leveraging African Policies: African countries are increasingly pushing for value addition through policies such as the African Green Mineral Strategy. India’s mission must align with these policies to create long-term partnerships that benefit both sides.
India’s Role in Africa’s Green Energy Transition: India is already investing in solar energy projects in Africa as part of the International Solar Alliance. Extending this cooperation to include critical mineral supply chains would create a mutually beneficial partnership that supports Africa’s development agenda and India’s industrial goals.
# ENSURING CRITICAL MINERAL SECURITY
Component
Description
Example
Diversification of Supply Sources
– Geographical Diversification: Reduce dependence on a few countries by sourcing from multiple regions. – Exploration and Development: Invest in domestic mining capabilities to develop untapped resources.
Example: The U.S. aims to diversify its lithium supply sources beyond China by sourcing from Australia and developing domestic lithium mining projects in Nevada .
Recycling and Circular Economy
– Recycling of Minerals: Increase efforts to recycle critical minerals from used products. – Urban Mining: Promote recovery of minerals from electronic waste through advanced recycling technologies.
Example: The EU has implemented policies to boost the recycling of rare earth elements from old electronics, aiming to recover valuable materials while reducing waste .
Strengthening Strategic Partnerships
– Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation: Strengthen partnerships with mineral-rich countries and engage in global forums. – Supply Chain Agreements: Sign long-term contracts with key producing nations.
Example: Australia and India signed a Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA), enhancing collaboration on critical minerals, including lithium and rare earths .
Developing Alternative Technologies
– Research and Development (R&D): Invest in alternative materials to reduce reliance on scarce minerals. – Innovation in Extraction: Support innovations to extract minerals sustainably and efficiently.
Example: Researchers are developing methods to extract lithium from brine more efficiently, reducing the environmental impact compared to traditional methods .
Strategic Stockpiling
– National Reserves: Create or expand stockpiles of critical minerals to buffer against supply disruptions. – Public-Private Partnerships: Engage private sectors in stockpile management and distribution.
Example: The U.S. Department of Defense has been working on building a strategic reserve of critical minerals like rare earth elements to ensure supply during geopolitical tensions .
Promoting Sustainable Mining Practices
– Environmentally Responsible Mining: Minimize environmental degradation with sustainable practices. – Social and Ethical Sourcing: Ensure fair labor practices and respect local community rights.
Example: The Mining and Minerals Policy for Australia emphasizes the need for responsible mining practices, including community engagement and minimizing environmental impacts .
Governmental Policy and Regulation
– Regulatory Reforms: Streamline regulations to reduce delays while ensuring environmental standards. – Incentives for Mining Investments: Offer financial support to companies involved in critical mineral extraction.
Example: Canada’s government introduced tax incentives for companies investing in critical mineral projects, aimed at boosting domestic production .
Resilient Infrastructure Development
– Supply Chain Infrastructure: Develop robust infrastructure for transportation, storage, and processing of critical minerals.
Example: The European Union is investing in infrastructure to support the extraction and processing of critical minerals, including roads and ports .
Formal Establishment (1858): The office of the Governor was established under the Government of India Actof1858, which transitioned administration from the East India Company to the British Crown. Governors acted as agents of the Crown and had significant powers in provincial administration.
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): The GoI Act of 1919, under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, aimed to increase Indian participation but kept the Governor central to governance, including vetoing Bills passed by legislative councils.
GoI Act of 1935: The GoI Act of 1935 gave provincial autonomy but retained the Governor’s discretionary powers, including vetoing Bills and withholding assent, signalling a transition toward more autonomy while maintaining significant Governor authority.
Post-Independence Transition (1947): As India moved toward independence, the India (Provisional Constitution) Order of 1947 modified the 1935 Act. It removed the phrase “in his discretion,” reducing the Governor’s discretionary powers and signalling a shift to a more symbolic and constitutional role.
Constituent Assembly Debates: It debated whether Governors should be elected or nominated. Concerns over separatism led to the decision that Governors would be nominated by the President to maintain unity and strengthen ties with the Centre, especially after the partition.
Post-Independence Framework: Before Independence, various documents and political proposals, including the Commonwealth India Bill (1925) and the Nehru Report (1928), supported retaining the office of the Governor, inspired by the Westminster model of governance.
Constitutional Role of the Governor:
Article 163: The Governor acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, except in certain discretionary situations.
Ambedkar’s Views: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar advocated for limited use of discretionary powers, ensuring the Governor’s actions align with the advice of the ministers.
Article 200: The Governor must grant assent to Bills, but may withhold assent, reserve the Bill for the President, or return it for reconsideration. Ambedkar amended this in 1949 to ensure the Governor acts in alignment with the elected government.
Symbolic and Impartial Role: The Governor is expected to represent the Union, support democratic functioning, and remain non-interfering in day-to-day state affairs.
Discretionary Powers: The Governor’s discretion is limited to constitutional guidelines and should be used sparingly, ensuring the Governor’s role remains constitutional, not political.
[UPSC 2017] In the context of Indian history, the-principle of ‘Dyarchy (diarchy)’ refers to:
(a) Division of the central legislature into two houses.
(b) Introduction of double government i.e., Central and State governments.
(c) Having two sets of rulers; one in London and another in Delhi.
(d) Division of the subjects delegated to the provinces into two categories. *
