A 42-year-old woman in Kerala tested positive for the Nipah virus on May 8, marking the third case reported from Malappuram district in the past two years.
Why is studying the genetic evolution of Nipah in humans and bats important?
Understanding Virulence and Transmission Potential: Genetic mutations can influence how severe the disease is and whether it can spread between humans. Eg: The 2018 outbreak in Kerala showed a high fatality rate (17 out of 18 cases), partly attributed to a variant with small but significant differences from the Bangladesh strain.
Detecting New Strains and Preventing Outbreaks: Regular monitoring of genetic changes in the virus found in bats (natural hosts) helps identify emerging strains before they jump to humans. Eg: Repeated spillovers in Kerala suggest evolving viral dynamics in bat populations.
Informing Vaccine and Diagnostic Development: Understanding the virus’s genetic structure enables the development of effective diagnostic tools, therapies, and future vaccines. Eg: Without updated genomic data, public health responses may lag behind fast-evolving variants.
Why is it important to share the genetic sequences of the Nipah virus in public databases without delay?
Enables Global Scientific Collaboration and Rapid Response: Sharing genetic sequences in public databases allows scientists worldwide to study the virus, track mutations, and develop diagnostic tools, treatments, or vaccines more efficiently. Eg: Rapid sharing of SARS-CoV-2 sequences in 2020 helped in the swift development of COVID-19 vaccines.
Monitors Viral Evolution and Assesses Public Health Risk: Timely sequence sharing helps detect genetic changes that may enhance the virus’s transmissibility or virulence, allowing health authorities to prepare accordingly. Eg: Genetic analysis of the 2018 Nipah strain in Kerala showed variation from the Bangladesh strain, helping researchers understand its unique impact.
How did the 2018/2023 outbreaks differ from the recent case in symptoms and transmission?
Aspect
2018/2023 Outbreaks
2024 Case
Clinical Presentation Type
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
Relatively milder, with fewer complications
Disease Severity
More severe, with multisystem involvement
Relatively milder, with fewer complications
Human-to-Human Transmission
Yes, leading to outbreaks
No human-to-human transmission observed yet
Viral Load and Spread Potential
High viral load in throat swabs, indicating spread
Lower viral load in AES patients, reducing spread
Outcome and Fatality
High fatality rate (17 deaths from 18 cases in 2018)
No deaths reported, with early detection and isolation
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
Rapid Response and Surveillance Systems: The government deploys central teams including epidemiologists and virologists for outbreak investigation and containment. Eg: In the 2023 Kerala outbreak, a Central team was sent immediately to assist the State with contact tracing and containment measures.
Strengthening Laboratory Diagnostics and Research: The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and National Institute of Virology (NIV), Pune, have developed diagnostic kits and conduct genomic sequencing of the virus. Eg: NIV Pune confirmed the Nipah virus infection in the May 2024 case and also conducted genome analysis during previous outbreaks.
Public Health Awareness and Isolation Protocols: Health departments issue guidelines on infection control, isolation of suspected cases, and public advisories to avoid contact with bats and consume only washed fruits. Eg: During the 2018 and 2023 outbreaks, Kerala implemented isolation wards, restricted public gatherings, and sensitised healthcare workers and the public.
Way forward:
Establish Permanent Nipah Surveillance Units in High-Risk Areas: Set up dedicated monitoring and response units in regions like Kerala for continuous bat sampling, genomic sequencing, and early detection.
Promote Transparent Data Sharing and Regional Collaboration: Ensure timely release of viral genomic data in public databases and collaborate with neighbouring countries for joint research and response planning.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through which the State can enhance the reach of public healthcare at the grassroots level.
Linkage: The importance of timely detection and isolation of Nipah cases and mentions different clinical presentations (AES and ARDS), implying the need for diagnostic and clinical management capacity. A robust public healthcare system, particularly at the grassroots level, is essential for effective surveillance, early detection, diagnosis, isolation, and management of infectious disease outbreaks like Nipah, making this question highly relevant.
Millions of informal workers in Indian cities are still suffering the most because Heat Action Plans are poorly designed.
What are the key gaps in current Heat Action Plans for informal workers?
Lack of Specific Focus on Informal Workers: Most Heat Action Plans do not explicitly identify or address the unique needs of informal workers. Eg: NDMA’s 2019 heatwave guidelines mention “outdoor workers” broadly, without specific measures for vendors, construction workers, or waste pickers.
Absence of Occupational Safety Protocols: There are no provisions for safe working hours, rest breaks, hydration, or emergency response for heat stress. Eg: State-level HAPs often do not mandate rest periods or shaded areas for those working under the sun, unlike Odisha which mandates halts in outdoor work during peak heat hours.
Short-term and Crisis-oriented Planning: Most HAPs are activated only during summer months and lack long-term strategies to tackle recurring heatwaves. Eg: City-level HAPs like those in Delhi focus on public awareness during heat alerts but don’t invest in permanent cooling infrastructure.
Inadequate Coordination Between Departments: Ministries and departments (Labour, Urban Affairs, Health) work in silos, leading to disjointed efforts. Eg: Urban development plans rarely consult labour departments, leaving out worker welfare components like cooling shelters at work sites.
No Budgetary Provision or Worker Participation: Most HAPs are underfunded and formulated without involving worker collectives or unions. Eg: Unlike Ahmedabad’s more inclusive model that adjusted work hours and created shaded rest areas, many cities fail to allocate funds or consult informal worker groups.
Why are informal workers most vulnerable to heatwaves?
Prolonged Exposure to Outdoor Heat: Informal workers often work in open, unshaded environments without protective infrastructure. Eg: Street vendors and construction workers spend long hours on roads or open sites under direct sunlight, increasing the risk of heatstroke and dehydration.
Lack of Social and Health Protection: Most informal workers are not covered under formal health insurance or welfare schemes. Eg: Waste pickers or rickshaw pullers facing heat exhaustion rarely get access to medical care or income support during extreme weather conditions.
No Control Over Work Conditions: Informal work lacks regulated hours, rest breaks, or heat safety norms. Eg: Gig workers or daily wage labourers often continue working during peak heat hours to avoid income loss, further risking their health.
Who should be included in drafting worker-focused HAPs?
Informal Worker Collectives and Unions: These groups bring first-hand knowledge of occupational challenges and practical needs. Eg: Street vendor associations can guide the placement of shaded stalls or cooling zones in high-traffic market areas.
Local Civil Society and NGOs: They have ground-level experience working with vulnerable communities and can ensure inclusive planning. Eg: NGOs working with waste pickers can help identify priority locations for hydration points and rest shelters.
Urban Local Bodies and Municipal Officials: City planners and officials must coordinate resources and integrate worker needs into official frameworks. Eg: Municipal corporations can designate public spaces like bus depots or community halls as cooling centers for workers.
Where should cooling zones be set up for maximum worker benefit?
High-Density Work Areas: Install cooling zones where informal workers are concentrated and exposed to heat. Eg: Labour chowks, construction sites, and industrial zones where daily wage workers gather and work outdoors.
Public Transport Hubs and Markets: Busy areas with long waiting times or heavy footfall offer strategic relief points. Eg: Bus stations, metro exits, and wholesale markets where street vendors and rickshaw pullers operate.
Slum Clusters and Informal Settlements: Set up community cooling centres where workers live in poorly ventilated, heat-trapping environments. Eg: Urban slums lacking trees or open spaces, where indoor heat stress is high during nights and afternoons.
How can cities integrate heat resilience into governance and planning? (Way forward)
Embed Heat-Safety Norms in Urban Planning Frameworks: Include heat adaptation measures in master plans, building bye-laws, and zoning regulations. Eg: Mandating cool roofs, passive ventilation, and shaded pathways in all new public infrastructure projects.
Retrofit Informal Workspaces for Thermal Comfort: Upgrade existing markets, labour hubs, and waste collection zones with heat-resilient designs. Eg: Installing reflective roofing, shade nets, and drinking water stations in street vendor zones.
Establish Interdepartmental Coordination and Accountability: Create dedicated roles (like a heat officer) and inter-ministerial task forces for climate and labour. Eg: A city-level heat officer coordinating between health, labour, and urban departments to ensure timely responses during heatwaves.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world.
Linkage: It is time to protect India’s workers from the heat” discusses the growing crisis of extreme heat in Indian cities and its severe impact on urban informal workers.
India and the European Union (EU) are strengthening ties as Poland assumes the EU Presidency in 2025. UPSC often asks questions from such topics in two ways: direct factual questions in Prelims and analytical ones in Mains. For Prelims, questions may focus on agreements, historical milestones, and policy initiatives. Mains questions usually demand an understanding of India’s foreign policy approach, economic diplomacy, and strategic interests. Many students struggle to connect current affairs with broader themes, leading to superficial answers. They often memorize facts without grasping their relevance, making it difficult to structure well-rounded answers. This article addresses these gaps by breaking down complex negotiations, historical phases, and critical challenges in India-EU relations. It links trade, technology, and strategic autonomy with India’s global positioning, helping readers develop a deeper analytical perspective. The section on “Pain Points in India-EU FTA” is particularly useful, as it simplifies the contentious issues in trade negotiations, making it easier to recall and use in answers. A standout feature of this article is its structured approach. The timeline of India-EU relations, key challenges, and proposed solutions provide a ready-made framework for exam answers. By understanding these insights, students can enhance their ability to write balanced, well-supported answers in UPSC Mains and tackle tricky Prelims questions with confidence.
PYQ ANCHORING & MICROTHEMES
GS 2: ‘The expansion and strengthening of NATO and a stronger US-Europe strategic partnership works well in India.’ What is your opinion about this statement? Give reasons and examples to support your answer. [2023]
Poland, assuming EU Presidency in 2025, prioritises enhancing European security and deepening ties with India, a key partner in global stability. EU-India relations will strengthen through a new strategic agenda, culminating in a summit. The ongoing “FTA 2.0” negotiations aim for a mutually beneficial, balanced trade agreement. Further, India has unveiled a 6-point plan aimed at fostering a stronger economic partnership with the European Union (EU).
The Six Broad Principles
Focus on common values of democracy, rule of law and independent judiciary.
Build a commercially meaningful, fair and equitable trade agenda, addressing trade barriers.
Exchange best practices and harmonizing standards to achieve zero defect and zero effect production capability.
Develop cutting edge technologies, secure critical raw material supply chains and build resilient supply chain.
Cooperation in trade and sustainable development conforming to Common But Differentiated Responsibility.
Partnership in mutual growth and development.
FTA 2.O
TA 2.0″ refers to a new phase of negotiations between India and the European Union for a Free Trade Agreement. This term indicates a revised and more ambitious approach compared to past talks, which failed after prolonged discussions. The “2.0” version aims to be more balanced, equitable, and mutually beneficial, addressing both global and regional trade challenges with a focus on creating a commercially significant agreement that benefits both parties.
PHASES OF INDIA-EU RELATIONS
Stage
Description
1. Early Diplomatic Engagement (1947-1970s)
– Post-Independence India engaged in diplomacy with European countries, including the UK, France, and Belgium. – India focused on multilateralism, and its trade and economic relations with Europe were initially limited.
2. 1980s-1990s: Evolution of Trade and Engagement
– India began pursuing economic openness with liberalization starting in the 1980s, boosting trade with European countries. – The EEC (European Economic Community) formed the basis for increased cooperation. – 1994: India-EEC Cooperation Agreement formalized engagement in political, economic, and cultural fields.
3. The Turn of the 21st Century: Strategic Partnership & Economic Cooperation
– The 1991 economic reforms in India led to rapid economic growth, including increased trade with the EU. – In 2004, the India-EU Strategic Partnership was formalized, fostering diplomatic, economic, and social cooperation.
4. 2000s: Trade Growth and FTA Negotiations
– India and the EU saw rapid economic integration in trade, with the EU becoming one of India’s largest trading partners and investors. – The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations began in the early 2000s with the objective of improving economic ties.
5. 2010s: Joint Efforts on Global Issues
– India and the EU cooperated on global challenges, including climate change, terrorism, and UN peacekeeping efforts. – India received EU support in securing a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. – Both focused on sustainability, renewable energy, and clean technologies, notably under the Paris Climate Agreement in 2015.
6. Recent Trends (2020-Present): Strengthening Ties Amid Global Challenges
– Growing cooperation on green energy, digital transformation, and vaccine production post-COVID-19. – The EU’s Green Deal and its focus on technology align with India’s goals. – Collaboration strengthened on strategic security issues, notably in the Indo-Pacific region, amid increasing global challenges.
PAINPOINTS: INDIA-EU FTA ??
Issue
EU’s Demand
India’s Concern
1. Tariff Barriers & Market Access
Lower tariffs on automobiles, wines, spirits, dairy.
Prefers state-to-state dispute resolution to avoid lawsuits from corporations.
3. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Stricter patent protection, especially in pharmaceuticals.
Protecting generic drug industry; avoiding evergreening of patents.
4. Labor & Environmental Standards
Binding commitments to ILO labor laws & environmental norms.
Fears these could become trade barriers affecting domestic industries.
5. Services & Mobility of Professionals
No major concessions on visa & work permits for Indian IT professionals.
Wants easier movement for skilled workers in IT, healthcare, financial services.
6. Agriculture & Dairy
Easier access for EU dairy & farm products to India.
Protection of Indian farmers from EU’s highly subsidized agriculture.
7. Geographical Indications (GI) & Standards
Recognition of more EU GIs (e.g., Champagne, Feta cheese).
Recognition of Indian GIs (e.g., Basmati rice, Darjeeling tea).
8. Data Protection & Digital Trade
Compliance with GDPR and EU’s data localization rules.
Concerns about impact on IT & e-commerce sectors.
9. Brexit Impact
New trade dynamics post-Brexit.
Adjusting strategy for separate FTAs with UK & EU.
CHALLENGES IN INDIA-EU RELATIONS
Challenges
Explanation
Examples
Geopolitical Differences
The EU envisions a comprehensive partnership, while India prioritizes strategic autonomy and avoids deep alliances.
– India’s neutral stance on Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, contrasting with the EU’s sanctions against Russia. – Different approaches to China.
Economic and Trade Barriers
FTA negotiations between India and the EU have faced delays due to disagreements on various issues, such as intellectual property and labor/environmental standards.
– Stricter EU intellectual property norms conflict with India’s focus on generic pharmaceuticals. – Disagreements on the Carbon Border Adjustment.
Defence and Strategic Divergences
India’s dependence on Russian defense systems limits deeper collaboration with Europe in military technology. EU-India defense ties lag behind those with the US or Russia.
– Projects like submarine collaborations with France and C-295 Aircraft with Spain are exceptions. – Russia supports joint defense manufacturing.
Technology and Innovation Gaps
India focuses on affordable technology, while Europe emphasizes sustainability and advanced manufacturing. Lack of coordinated response hampers joint technological progress.
– Competition with China’s dominance in emerging technologies like AI and Quantum computing. – Lack of coordination between India and the EU.
Structural Barriers
Divergences among EU member states complicate a unified foreign policy approach toward India, leading to fragmented and ineffective collaboration.
– Differing foreign policy priorities and interests across EU member states affect the consistency and strength of their engagement with India.
NEED FOR STRONG INDIA-EU RELATIONS
Countering Authoritarianism: India and the EU, both democracies, face pressure from authoritarian regimes like China (for India) and Russia (for the EU). Strengthening ties would help create a united front defending democratic values and countering autocratic expansionism.
Economic Growth: An FTA between India and the EU would boost trade and investment. With the EU as the largest economic bloc and India projected to be the third-largest economy by 2030, they offer mutual benefits such as market access, tech exchange, and alternative supply chains to reduce dependency on China.
Technological Collaboration: India’s tech innovation and the EU’s R&D capabilities can drive initiatives in AI, quantum computing, biotech, and space, countering China’s dominance. The EU-India Trade and Technology Council (TTC) can align strategies on emerging technologies, boosting cybersecurity, green tech, and clean energy. India’s sunrise sectors can also revive manufacturing in Europe, benefiting both.
Environmental Action: India and the EU can lead global climate action with initiatives on clean energy, carbon reduction, and sustainable development, utilizing India’s renewable potential and the EU’s environmental leadership. Joint investments in green technologies like solar power, electric vehicles, and sustainable agriculture can contribute to global sustainability.
WAY FORWARD
Unity Against Authoritarianism: India, Europe, and the US can unite to combat rising authoritarianism, using platforms like Democracy Summits to address global challenges.
Leveraging the TTC: The EU-India Trade and Technology Council (TTC) offers an opportunity to align technology goals and foster innovation in key sectors, similar to the US-India initiative on emerging technologies.
Strategic Economic Partnership: Beyond an FTA, India and the EU can explore joint ventures in sectors like pharmaceuticals, technology, renewable energy, and critical raw materials.
Trade Agreements: The EU could sign an agreement with India similar to the India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) to promote free trade and economic integration.
Defense Cooperation: India’s defense partnerships with the US, Russia, and the Quad can be complemented by EU investment in India’s defense sector and advanced technologies for regional security.
#BACK2BASICS: INDIA’S ECONOMIC DIPLOMACYELEMENTS
Element
Description
Examples & Initiatives
Attracting Investments & Promoting Exports
Enhancing global competitiveness through FDI liberalization, ease of doing business, and manufacturing incentives.
Make in India, PLI schemes, Atmanirbhar Bharat, USD 81.97 billion FDI (2020-21).
Mobilizing Finances for Partner Countries
Extending financial aid and credit lines to developing nations to strengthen economic ties.
India-UN Development Fund ($150 million), International Solar Alliance (ISA), Lines of Credit (LoCs).
Building Support for International Rule-Making
Influencing global economic rules by engaging in multilateral institutions like WTO, UN, WHO.
TRIPS waiver for COVID-19 vaccines, Peace Clause at WTO, Leadership in G77 & South-South Cooperation.
Economic Sanctions & Strategic Autonomy
Selective use of economic sanctions while maintaining independent foreign policy.
Revoked Pakistan’s MFN status (2019), Avoided sanctions on Russia despite G7 pressure.
Financing Through Multilateral Platforms
Engaging with global financial institutions to fund development projects in partner countries.
ADB, BRICS NDB, World Bank, Infrastructure financing in Africa & Indo-Pacific.
Bilateral Development Aid & South-South Cooperation
Strengthening economic ties through grants, concessional loans, and technical cooperation.
India-Africa Forum Summit, Capacity-building programs, Agricultural & IT support to African nations.
Trade Negotiations & Market Access
Expanding trade partnerships through FTAs while protecting domestic industries.
India-EU & India-UK FTA talks, RCEP withdrawal due to concerns over China’s dominance.
Leveraging Soft Power for Economic Gains
Using India’s cultural and technological strengths to boost diplomatic influence.
Vaccine diplomacy (Covaxin exports), WHO Global Centre for Traditional Medicine, Yoga Diplomacy.
CHALLENGES IN INDIAN ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY
Challenge
Details
Specific Example Explaining the Challenge
Declining share in Global Value Chains (GVCs)
India’s merchandise exports have been declining in labor-intensive sectors like textiles, gems & jewelry, and leather due to high logistics costs, stagnant manufacturing growth, and lower FDI inflow.
Despite being in proximity to ‘Factory Asia,’ India is less integrated into GVCs than Bangladesh and Vietnam. India’s logistics costs are triple that of China and double that of Bangladesh.
Poor implementation of development projects & regional discrimination
India’s Lines of Credit (LoCs) and development aid suffer from slow disbursal, delays in project completion, and are focused mainly on neighboring countries, neglecting regions like Africa.
India has committed $2 billion for development projects in Africa, but delays in execution and funding have affected India’s credibility as a reliable development partner.
Inability to gather majority support at multilateral platforms
India faces difficulty in pushing trade reforms at WTO, UN, and WHO due to opposition from developed nations and lack of support from other developing countries.
India’s demand to review the WTO moratorium on custom duties for digital goods (which causes a $10 billion annual loss, mostly borne by developing nations) was extended further despite India’s objections.
Engaging with China
India struggles to balance economic and geopolitical interests with China, especially in South Asia and the Indo-Pacific, while also relying on China for critical imports.
Despite border tensions, India imports nearly 70% of its pharmaceutical raw materials (APIs) from China, making it difficult to fully decouple from Chinese supply chains.
Lack of a clear development cooperation strategy
India lacks a well-defined approach to specific global development goals like food security, health security, and clean energy, leading to uncoordinated aid efforts.
Unlike China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), India does not have a coherent global economic strategy, making its aid distribution less visible and less influential.
Compartmentalized bureaucratic structure
Poor coordination between ministries and businesses creates inefficiencies in integrating economic and strategic goals.
There is no single centralized agency handling India’s economic diplomacy, leading to fragmented efforts in trade negotiations and foreign aid programs.
Emerging issues in global trade
Rising protectionism, weakening of WTO, preference for bilateral over multilateral agreements, and anti-globalization sentiments are affecting India’s trade ambitions.
The Appellate Body of WTO is non-functional due to the US blocking new appointments, making dispute resolution difficult for developing countries like India.
India must adapt its economic diplomacy to integrate AI, 5G, digital trade, and green technologies into global governance.
India lacks a dominant role in shaping global AI and data regulations, unlike the US, EU, and China, which are setting the standards for digital trade and cybersecurity.
The 3 Jansuraksha Schemes— Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY), Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY) and Atal Pension Yojana (APY) launched by PM Modi on May 9, 2015, have completed 10 years of providing social security coverage to citizens.
The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, has announced the expansion of the Credit Guarantee Scheme for Startups (CGSS).
About Credit Guarantee Scheme for Startups (CGSS):
The CGSS was launched on October 6, 2022, as part of the Startup India Action Plan.
The scheme is designed to provide collateral-free credit to eligible startups through recognized financial institutions.
It offers credit guarantee cover for loans extended by Scheduled Commercial Banks, All India Financial Institutions (AIFIs), Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), and SEBI-registered Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs).
The guaranteed coverage is available in 2 formats:
Transaction-based (for individual borrowers) and
Umbrella-based (for Venture Debt Funds).
The scheme helps startups access funding through instruments such as working capital, term loans, and venture debt.
The DPIIT is responsible for the oversight and implementation of the scheme.
The scheme is operated by the National Credit Guarantee Trustee Company Limited (NCGTC).
A Management Committee (MC) and a Risk Evaluation Committee (REC) have been constituted to supervise and review the operations of the scheme.
It aligns with the objective of encouraging innovation, supporting early-stage entrepreneurship, and driving economic self-reliance.
Key Changes in the Expanded CGSS:
Guarantee ceiling increased from ₹10 crore to ₹20 crore per borrower.
Guarantee cover enhanced to:
85% for loans up to ₹10 crore.
75% for loans exceeding ₹10 crore.
Annual Guarantee Fee (AGF) reduced from 2% to 1% p.a. for startups in 27 Champion Sectors.
The Champion Sectors are identified under the ‘Make in India’ initiative to strengthen domestic manufacturing and services.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements with reference to India:
1. According to the ‘Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006’, the ‘medium enterprises’ are those with investments in plant and machinery between Rs. 15 crore and Rs. 25 crore.
2. All bank loans to the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises qualify under the priority sector.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
India participated in the 20th session of the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF20) held at the UN Headquarters, New York, reaffirming its commitment to the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests (UNSPF) 2017–2030.
About United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF):
UNFF was established in 2000 by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
It aims to promote sustainable forest management and global forest policy coordination.
It holds annual sessions at UN Headquarters:
Technical discussions in odd years
Policy-level dialogues in even years
It has universal membership — includes all UN Member States and relevant forest-related agencies.
India is a founding member and plays an active role in shaping forest policies.
The UN Strategic Plan for Forests (UNSPF) is the guiding framework for achieving global forest goals by 2030.
The 19th UNFF Declaration secured high-level political commitment for forest conservation.
Key Highlights of UNFF20:
India reaffirmed its commitment to Voluntary National Contributions (VNCs) under the UNSPF (2017–2030).
It reported an increase in forest and tree cover to 25.17% of its geographical area.
National efforts included the Aravalli Green Wall, a 7.86% rise in mangrove cover, 1.55 lakh hectares afforested under the Green India Mission, and 1.4 billion seedlings planted under the Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam campaign.
It urged support for outcomes of the Country-Led Initiative (CLI) on forest fire management held in Dehradun (2023).
In a high-level panel, India presented findings on carbon sequestration, water services, biodiversity, and tools like System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA) and Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA).
It stressed the need to mainstream ecosystem valuation in forest policy.
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the ‘New York Declaration on Forests’, which of the following statements are correct?
1. It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014.
2. It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests.
3. It is a legally binding international declaration.
4. It is endorsed by governments, big companies, and indigenous communities.
5. India was one of the signatories at its inception.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, and 4* (b) 1, 3, and 5 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 5
The Competition Commission of India (CCI) has introduced new Cost Regulations 2025 to check if companies are selling below cost to unfairly drive out competitors.
About Competition Commission of India (CCI):
The CCI was established on 14 October 2003 and became fully operational in May 2009.
It aims to eliminate anti-competitive practices, prevent abuse of dominant positions, and promote fair competition.
It was formed under the Competition Act, 2002, later amended in 2007, replacing the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 based on Raghavan Committee recommendations.
The headquarters is located in Kidwai Nagar (East), New Delhi, and the Commission includes 1 Chairperson and up to 6 Members, all appointed by the Central Government.
Members must have at least 15 years of experience in areas such as law, economics, business, finance, or public administration.
Jurisdiction of CCI:
It is a quasi-judicial statutory body under the Ministry of Corporate Affairs.
It has the authority to initiate cases suo motu or respond to public/institutional complaints, and can impose penalties for violations.
Its jurisdiction spans all sectors across India, and it is empowered to frame its own regulations under the Act.
New Cost Definitions under Cost Regulations, 2025:
Under the Cost Regulations 2025, Average Variable Cost (AVC) is used to measure cost, calculated by dividing total variable costs by total output.
Variable cost excludes fixed costs and overheads and varies with production.
Although a sector-specific approach was considered, the CCI adopted a case-by-case evaluation after stakeholder feedback.
The new framework is sector-agnostic, allowing flexibility for diverse industries, including the digital economy, and supports better adaptation to market dynamics.
[UPSC 2020] With reference to Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS), which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Quantitative restrictions on imports by foreign investors are prohibited. 2. They apply to investment measures related to trade in both goods and services. 3. They are not concerned with the regulation of foreign investment.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3
[UPSC 2021] “There arose a serious challenge to the Democratic State System between the two World Wars.” Evaluate the statement.
Linkage: The period “between the two World Wars”, providing a broader historical context related to World War II which is the focus of Article. It prompts discussion on the challenges to democratic systems during this era.
Mentor’s Comment: Eighty years ago, on May 8, 1945, the Second World War officially ended in Europe when Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allied forces in Reims and Berlin. This day is celebrated as Victory in Europe (VE) Day, but in India, it often goes unnoticed, as the years of the war (1939-1945) are mainly remembered as the final phase of the struggle for independence. It is important to remember that Indians never ignored their duties to the world, whether in war or peace, as shown by the lives of two lesser-known Indians.
Today’s editorial examines the contributions of lesser-known Indian heroes like Kolachala Sitaramaiah and Idris Hasan Latif during World War II. This content will be useful for GS Paper I (World History) and GS Paper II (International Relations).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On May 9th, Victory in Europe Day is also a time to honor the brilliance of scientists like Kolachala Sitaramaiah and the courage of soldiers like Idris Hasan Latif during World War II.
Who was Kolachala Sitaramaiah?
Kolachala Sitaramaiah (July 15, 1899 – September 29, 1977) was a renowned chemist and is often referred to as the “Father of Chemotology,” the field dedicated to the study of lubricants and combustible materials in technology.
Born in Uyyuru, Andhra Pradesh, he pursued advanced studies abroad, where he made substantial contributions to the understanding of lubricants, particularly their role in machinery and the development of motor oils.
What contributions did he make during the Second World War?
Fuel Innovation for Soviet Tanks: He developed kerosene-based fuels and specialized lubricants that significantly enhanced the performance and maneuverability of Soviet tanks in sub-zero battlefield conditions. Eg: These innovations were critical during the Battle of Kursk (1943), where Soviet T-34 tanks outperformed Nazi Panzer and Tiger tanks.
Scientific Expertise Redirected to War Effort: Although he volunteered for frontline combat, Soviet authorities recognized his intellectual value and redirected him to research, stating his brain was a weapon, not a target. Eg: His work helped overcome early mechanical failures in Soviet tanks, crucial to halting the Nazi ground offensive.
Foundation for Future Scientific Fields: His wartime research laid the groundwork for chemmotology (tribochemistry) — the study of chemical changes from mechanical energy — and later contributed to plasma research important for nuclear fusion. Eg: His observations of incendiary weapons inspired deeper scientific inquiry into the fourth state of matter — plasma.
What were the challenges faced by Indian pilots like Idris Latif during their missions in the Second World War?
Inferior Aircraft and Equipment: Indian pilots were initially assigned outdated biplanes, putting them at a disadvantage in combat situations. Eg: Idris Latif flew patrols along the North West Frontier in old aircraft while British pilots used advanced models.
Dangerous Combat Environments: They flew missions in extremely hostile conditions, including thick jungles, poor visibility, and constant threat of enemy fire. Eg: In Burma, Idris flew the Hawker Hurricane against Japanese Zero fighters, often from muddy, short landing strips.
Health Hazards and Illness: Pilots endured unhygienic, disease-prone environments, which led to severe illnesses. Eg: Idris Latif fell gravely ill in the humid, mosquito-infested jungles of Burma but refused to abandon his squadron.
Lack of Recognition and Discrimination: Despite their service, Indian pilots often faced racial bias and were under-acknowledged by the colonial British authorities. Eg: Idris and others had to prove themselves repeatedly before being entrusted with frontline roles in Europe.
Emotional and Moral Dilemmas: Indian soldiers and pilots had to reconcile serving a colonial power while also yearning for India’s independence. Eg: Despite these conflicts, Idris remained committed to fighting fascism and later chose to stay in independent India post-Partition.
When did Idris Hasan Latif become the Chief of the Indian Air Force?
Appointment as Air Chief Marshal: Idris Hasan Latif became the 10th Chief of the Indian Air Force in 1978, marking a significant moment in IAF history. He was the first Muslim to hold the top position in the Indian Air Force.
Recognized for Wartime Service and Leadership: His distinguished service during the Second World War and later roles earned him this high command. His performance in combat and leadership roles post-independence showcased his capabilities.
How did he contribute to strengthening India-France defence relations?
Role as India’s Ambassador to France (1985–1988): After retiring as Air Chief Marshal, he was appointed Ambassador to France, a key position for defence diplomacy. Eg: His presence in Paris helped facilitate high-level strategic discussions on defence cooperation.
Leveraging Wartime Bonds: His personal connection to World War II and Normandy fostered shared respect and trust with French counterparts. Eg: He visited Normandy during his tenure, recalling his war contributions, which resonated deeply with French officials.
Military-to-Military Cooperation: He actively promoted exchanges between Indian and French armed forces and encouraged joint training initiatives.
Laying Groundwork for Future Defence Deals: His tenure helped build the foundation of trust that later enabled critical defence procurements. Eg: The Rafale fighter jet deal, though signed much later, benefited from the diplomatic groundwork laid during his ambassadorship.
Promoting Indigenous Capability through Collaboration: He supported technology transfers and joint development possibilities with France. Eg: His diplomatic efforts aligned with India’s interest in acquiring not just equipment but also technical know-how.
What is the evolution of the Indian Air Force (IAF)?
Formation and Early Years (1932–1947): The IAF was established in 1932 as an auxiliary force under British rule, participating in World War II with limited autonomy. Eg: Indian pilots flew biplanes in the Burma campaign during WWII.
Post-Independence Expansion (1947–1960s): After 1947, the IAF was reorganized as an independent force, expanding its fleet and training infrastructure. Eg: IAF played a crucial role in the 1947–48 Kashmir conflict using Dakotas to airlift troops.
Modernisation after Wars (1970s–1990s): Following wars with Pakistan and China, India focused on acquiring advanced aircraft and building indigenous capability. Eg: Introduction of MiG-21s, Miraj 2000 and establishment of HAL’s fighter production line.
Technology Integration and Strategic Reach (2000s): The IAF integrated AWACS, aerial refuellers, precision-guided munitions, and enhanced air defence systems. Eg: Induction of Sukhoi Su-30 MKI significantly improved long-range strike capability.
Next-Gen Air Power and Global Partnerships (2010s–Present): IAF has adopted network-centric warfare, multirole fighters, and AI-based systems, while deepening global defence ties. Eg: Procurement of Rafale jets from France and participation in multilateral exercises like Red Flag and Garuda.
What is the role of France in the Indian Air Force?
Strategic Defence Partner Since Early Years: France has been a consistent defence partner for India, supplying key aircraft and technology since the 1950s. Eg: France provided Ouragan (Toofani) jets in the 1950s, among IAF’s first jet fighters.
Supplier of Multirole Combat Aircraft: French aircraft have strengthened IAF’s strike capabilities through advanced multirole platforms. Eg: The Dassault Mirage 2000, inducted in 1985, played a decisive role in the Kargil War (1999).
Rafale Fighter Jet Deal: The acquisition of 36 Rafale jets enhanced India’s air dominance with advanced avionics, weaponry, and capabilities. Eg: Rafale jets were inducted starting in 2020 under a government-to-government deal with France.
Technology Transfer and Maintenance Support: France has supported India through tech transfer, joint production, and robust maintenance infrastructure. Eg: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) maintained and upgraded Mirage 2000s with French collaboration.
Joint Exercises and Defence Diplomacy: India and France regularly conduct joint air exercises that enhance IAF’s tactical exposure and interoperability. Eg: The Garuda series of exercises improve coordination between French and Indian air forces.
Way forward:
Deepen Strategic Collaboration in Emerging Technologies: India and France should jointly invest in cutting-edge aerospace technologies such as AI-based combat systems, stealth UAVs, and hypersonic platforms to future-proof IAF capabilities.
Expand Joint Training and Indo-French Defence Industrial Base: Encourage co-development and co-production of next-generation aircraft and defence systems under Make in India, while scaling up joint military exercises like Garuda for enhanced operational synergy.
India and the United Kingdom have signed a landmark Free Trade Agreement (FTA), under which 99% of Indian exports to the U.K. will have no import duties, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and U.K. Prime Minister Keir Starmer announced on Tuesday.
What are the key benefits for India under the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United Kingdom?
Zero-Duty Access for 99% of Indian Exports: This significantly enhances India’s export competitiveness in the U.K. market. Eg: Indian gems and jewellery, apparel, and engineering goods will enter the U.K. without customs duties, making them more attractive to British buyers.
Social Security Relief for Indian Workers in the U.K: Indian professionals and their employers will be exempt from social security contributions for up to 3 years. Eg: Indian IT professionals on temporary assignments in the U.K. will take home higher net salaries, encouraging Indian firms to send more workers abroad.
Boost to Services Trade and Investment Flows: The FTA facilitates easier movement of professionals and investors, promoting service sector growth and foreign direct investment (FDI). Eg: Indian consultancy firms or startups may find it easier to operate or invest in the U.K., supporting India’s goal of becoming a services export hub.
Who are the major Indian stakeholders expressing optimism about the FTA with the U.K., and why?
Engineering Goods Sector: Expects a significant boost in exports due to reduced or zero tariffs. Eg: The Engineering Export Promotion Council (EEPC) projects engineering exports to the U.K. to nearly double to $7.55 billion by 2029-30.
Apparel and Textile Industry: Gains price competitiveness in the U.K. market through zero-duty access. Eg: Indian garments become more competitive against Bangladeshi or Vietnamese exports, enhancing market share in Europe.
Gems and Jewellery Sector: Welcomes duty-free access for high-value products, boosting profitability. Eg: Indian jewellers can export gold and diamond jewellery to the U.K. with lower cost structures.
Information Technology (IT) and Professional Services: Benefits from easier mobility and recognition of qualifications for professionals. Eg: Indian IT firms can deploy professionals to the U.K. more efficiently, with less visa friction.
Indian Employers of Workers in the U.K: Gain from exemption from social security contributions for Indian workers temporarily in the U.K. Eg: Firms hiring Indian talent in the U.K. will save on mandatory contributions for 3 years, reducing costs and encouraging cross-border placements.
Why are Indian farmer organisations opposing the India-U.K. FTA?
Threat from Imported Agricultural Products: Reduced tariffs on U.K. agri-exports like lamb, salmon, and dairy products may hurt Indian farmers. Eg: Cheaper U.K. lamb and salmon could enter the Indian market, undercutting local producers who already operate on thin margins.
Concerns Over Low-Income, Low-Margin Conditions: Indian farmers fear intensified competition could worsen their already precarious economic situation. Eg: Many Indian farmers rely on traditional and small-scale farming, which cannot compete with heavily subsidised U.K. agriculture.
Lack of Protective Mechanisms: The FTA lacks clear safeguards to protect Indian farmers from market shocks due to sudden import surges. Eg: No countervailing duties or quotas have been announced to cushion farmers from a flood of imported agri-goods.
How could the India-U.K. FTA influence future trade agreements with the European Union and the United States?
Establishing a Negotiation Template: The India-U.K. FTA may serve as a reference framework for structuring future trade deals. Eg: If India agrees to liberalise tariffs on 85% of imports from the U.K., similar expectations may arise in talks with the EU and U.S..
Precedent for Sensitive Sector Concessions: Concessions on agricultural and alcohol imports set a precedent for market access in sensitive sectors. Eg: The cut in whiskey and gin tariffs for the U.K. may lead to similar demands from U.S. bourbon producers or EU wine exporters.
Pressure on Domestic Manufacturing and Policy: As India lowers duties and opens its markets, pressure may grow on its industrial and trade policy in upcoming FTAs. Eg: With less than 2% share in global exports, India’s manufacturing sector could be exposed if future FTAs follow the U.K. model without strong support policies.
Way forward:
Safeguard Vulnerable Sectors: Introduce protective clauses such as trigger safeguards, quotas, or phased liberalisation to shield Indian farmers and MSMEs from import surges. Eg: Gradual tariff cuts with review mechanisms for sensitive agri-products.
Strengthen Domestic Competitiveness: Enhance manufacturing capacity, R&D incentives, and export infrastructure to fully capitalise on new market access. Eg: Support engineering and textile sectors with technology upgradation and logistics hubs.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.
Linkage: The India-UK FTA, and its potential use as a template for agreements with the EU and the US mentioned in article, can be viewed within the broader context of strengthening India’s economic and strategic ties with Western countries. This PYQ explores the reasons behind such partnerships, which provides a geopolitical backdrop to India’s trade negotiations with the UK and other Western nations.
Tensions between the two countries increased as Pakistan launched missiles and drones early Thursday to target 15 Indian military sites. In response, India hit air defence radars in Pakistan, neutralizing one in Lahore.
What are the three main operations that constitute an effective air defence system?
Detection: The first step involves identifying incoming threats like aircraft, drones, or missiles using radars or satellites. Eg: India’s Rohini Radar can detect multiple aerial targets and is part of the Akash Air Defence System.
Tracking: Once a threat is detected, it must be tracked continuously using radar, infrared, or laser-based sensors to determine its speed, altitude, and trajectory. Eg: The S-400 Triumf uses advanced tracking radars to simultaneously monitor and engage multiple targets.
Interception: After detection and tracking, the threat is neutralized using fighter aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-aircraft artillery. Eg: India’s Akash missile system intercepts enemy aircraft or missiles at medium ranges.
Why is the suppression of enemy air defence systems (SEAD) crucial for establishing air superiority?
Enables Safe Aerial Operations: Neutralising enemy air defences allows friendly aircraft to operate freely without the constant threat of being shot down. Eg: During the 1991 Gulf War, the U.S. first targeted Iraqi SAM sites to ensure air superiority.
Supports Ground Forces: Air superiority ensures effective air cover for ground troops, enabling safer movement, airstrikes, and supply drops. Eg: NATO SEAD missions in Kosovo helped protect allied ground forces from Serbian air defences.
Disrupts Enemy Command and Control: Destroying radar and communication nodes weakens the enemy’s ability to coordinate defences. Eg: Israeli SEAD missions against Syrian defences in 1982 crippled Syria’s radar and SAM systems early in the conflict.
Which types of weapons are commonly used by nations to intercept and neutralise aerial threats?
Fighter Aircraft (Interceptors): Fast and agile aircraft used to engage enemy fighters and bombers in air-to-air combat. Eg: India’s Dassault Rafale jets can intercept and neutralise enemy aircraft using beyond-visual-range missiles.
Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs): Ground- or ship-based missiles that target aircraft, helicopters, or incoming missiles. Eg: The S-400 system can engage threats up to 400 km away with high precision.
Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA): High-rate-of-fire guns used as a last line of defence, particularly against low-flying targets.Eg: The L70 Bofors gun is used by India for low-altitude air defence.
How do electronic warfare (EW) systems contribute to air defence without directly engaging enemy aircraft or missiles?
Radar Jamming: EW systems emit signals that interfere with enemy radar, making it difficult to detect or lock on to targets. Eg: The U.S. Navy’s EA-18G Growler jams enemy radar to protect allied aircraft.
Deception (Decoys): They send false signals to mislead enemy sensors, creating phantom targets or hiding real ones. Eg:DRDO’s “Samudrika” decoy system confuses enemy missile guidance.
Communication Disruption: EW tools disrupt enemy communication networks, limiting their coordination and response. Eg: Tactical jammers can cut off enemy ground-to-air communications during attacks.
Disabling Precision Weapons: EW can block or misguide the guidance systems of smart bombs and missiles. Eg: GPS jammers can prevent guided missiles from striking their intended targets.
Protection of Own Assets: EW defends friendly aircraft and installations by masking their electromagnetic signature. Eg:Su-30MKI fighters are equipped with EW suites to evade missile lock-ons.
Where can surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) be launched from?
Land-Based Platforms: SAMs are commonly deployed on fixed launchers or mobile vehicles for ground defence. Eg: India’s Akash missile system is mounted on trucks for mobility and rapid deployment.
Naval Warships: SAMs are launched from warships to protect against aerial and missile threats at sea. Eg: The Barak-8 missile is deployed on Indian Navy destroyers like INS Kolkata.
Sub-surface or Strategic Facilities: Some strategic SAM systems are integrated into hardened, underground bunkers or launch silos for protection. Eg: S-400 systems are often placed in secure, semi-permanent launch sites for long-range interception.
What are the different classes of SAMs used by India?
Long-Range SAMs: These systems are designed to engage high-altitude and long-range targets, including ballistic missiles and aircraft. Eg: The S-400 Triumf system, which has a range of up to 400 km, is a long-range SAM used by India to intercept aircraft and missiles.
Medium-Range SAMs: These systems are mobile and effective in engaging threats at intermediate ranges, typically between 50-100 km. Eg: The Akash missile system, developed by DRDO, is a medium-range SAM designed to protect tactical areas.
Short-Range SAMs (MANPADS): These are portable, man-carried systems used to defend against low-flying targets such as helicopters or drones. Eg: The Igla MANPAD, which is used by Indian forces for short-range air defence, can target low-flying aircraft and drones.
Conclusion: India’s air defence system integrates advanced radar, tracking, and interception capabilities through various SAMs, including long, medium, and short-range systems, ensuring comprehensive protection against aerial threats across diverse platforms.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence missile system different from any other system presently available in the world?
Linkage: Air defence systems are vital in modern warfare for controlling the skies and protecting against enemy air strikes, including missiles. Understanding how air defence systems generally work (detection, tracking, interception methods) is essential context for discussing the features and differences of a specific system like the S-400 missile system mentioned in the question.
