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  • Crimes against humanity and an obtuse Indian stance

    Why in the News?

    India’s stance on a ‘crimes against humanity’ treaty reflects its longstanding reservations about the Rome Statute and the International Criminal Court.

    What is India’s stance on the proposed Crimes Against Humanity treaty?

    • Non-Party to the Rome Statute: India is not a signatory to the Rome Statute and has consistently expressed objections to the ICC’s jurisdiction, particularly regarding the powers of the ICC prosecutor and the role of the UN Security Council in prosecuting international crimes. India argues that it should be able to address such issues through its national legal system rather than through international mechanisms.
    • Call for In-Depth Study: For 5 years, India has advocated for a comprehensive examination of the need for a dedicated CAH treaty. This reflects its belief that existing frameworks may not adequately address the complexities of CAH.
    • Concerns Over Duplication: India is wary that a new CAH treaty could overlap with existing laws under the Rome Statute, potentially complicating accountability measures rather than clarifying them.

    How does India’s legal framework address crimes against humanity?

    • Lack of Domestic Legislation: Currently, India does not have specific domestic laws prohibiting crimes against humanity. The absence of such legislation was highlighted by Justice S. Muralidhar of the Delhi High Court, who noted that neither CAH nor genocide is included in India’s criminal law. This gap indicates a need for legislative action to align with international standards.
    • Emphasis on National Jurisdiction: India maintains that national courts are more suitable for addressing CAH and other international crimes, emphasising its preference for national over international jurisdiction in these matters.

    Why should India have proper legislation related to Crime against humanity?

    • Inadequate Domestic Legislation: Despite ratifying the Genocide Convention, India lacks domestic laws to enforce its provisions, creating a gap in prosecuting crimes like genocide and CAH.
    • International Accountability: Enacting CAH laws would align India’s legal framework with international standards, fulfilling commitments and enhancing global cooperation on prosecuting international crimes.
    • Justice for Mass Atrocities: India’s history of communal violence underscores the need for CAH laws to ensure justice, accountability, and deterrence against future atrocities while safeguarding human rights.
    • Leadership in Human Rights: By adopting CAH laws, India could address global issues like terrorism, advocate for accountability, and position itself as a leader in promoting justice and human dignity.
    • Empowering National Courts: CAH laws would strengthen Indian courts’ ability to handle serious human rights violations, reinforcing the country’s preference for national jurisdiction over international mechanisms.

    What are India’s specific concerns regarding the definitions and scope of crimes against humanity?

    • Definition of Crimes: India has raised objections to certain definitions within the proposed treaty. It argues against including “enforced disappearance” as a CAH while advocating for “terrorism” to be recognised as such. This reflects India’s broader security concerns and its focus on acts it deems more relevant to its national context.
    • Scope of Application: India contends that crimes committed only during armed conflicts should be classified as CAH, opposing any broader interpretation that includes peacetime offences. This position underscores India’s strategic interests and its approach to defining accountability in terms of state actions during conflicts rather than in peacetime contexts.

    Do you know?

    • Justice (Retd.) V Ramasubramanian has been appointed as the new chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC).
    • Priyank Kanoongo (former NCPCR chief) and Dr. Justice Bidyut Ranjan Sarangi (Retd.) have been appointed as NHRC Members.

    About National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

    • A Statutory Body established under the Protection of Human Rights Act (PHRA), 1993.
    • Chairperson: Former Supreme Court Justice or Chief Justice; appointed by the President.
    • Members:
      • Four full-time members:
        • 1 ex-SC Judge (Chairperson),
        • 1 ex-SC Judge,
        • 1 ex-Chief Justice of a High Court,
        • 1 expert in human rights (at least one woman).
      • Seven ex-officio members: Chairpersons of national commissions (SC/ST, Women, Minorities, etc.) and Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities.
    • Appointment Process:
      • Appointed by the President on the recommendation of a committee (PM, Speaker of Lok Sabha, Home Minister, Leaders of Opposition, etc.).
      • Judicial appointments involve consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
      • Removal: Requires consultation with the Supreme Court and an order by the President.
    • Terms of Office:
      • Term: 3 years or until the age of 70 (whichever is earlier).
      • Eligible for reappointment but not for other government posts.
    • Limitations:
      • Cannot inquire into cases older than one year from the alleged violation.
      • Functions are recommendatory; lacks direct punitive powers.
      • Limited jurisdiction over cases involving the armed forces.
    • Functions:
      • Inquire into alleged human rights violations.
      • Recommend interim relief to victims.
      • Intervene in court proceedings on human rights matters.
      • Review constitutional and legal safeguards for human rights.
      • Promote human rights literacy and support NGOs.
    • Powers:
      • Can regulate its own procedure.
      • Exercises powers of a civil court with judicial authority.

    Way forward: 

    • Enact Comprehensive Domestic Legislation: India should introduce laws addressing crimes against humanity and other international crimes, aligning with global standards while addressing domestic concerns like terrorism and communal violence.
    • Advocate for Inclusive Global Frameworks: India can engage constructively in international negotiations on the CAH treaty, pushing for definitions and provisions that address its concerns, such as including terrorism, while leveraging its stance to lead global efforts in promoting accountability and human rights.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q What do each of the following quotations mean to you? “Condemn none: if you can stretch out a helping hand, do so. If not, fold your hands, bless your brothers, and let them go their own way.” – Swami Vivekanand (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • The political crisis in South Korea

    Why in the News?

    President Yoon Suk Yeol’s decision to declare martial law caused a nationwide crisis, leading to an impeachment and a long legal fight in South Korea’s Constitutional Court.

    south korea

    What Led to President Yoon Suk Yeol’s Declaration of Martial Law?

    • Political Frustration: Facing increasing opposition and a loss of support from the National Assembly after the April 2024 elections, Yoon declared martial law on December 3, 2024, in a desperate attempt to maintain control amid growing dissent against his administration’s policies and allegations of corruption involving his wife.
    • Opposition Assertiveness: The opposition parties gained significant power in the National Assembly, securing 192 out of 300 seats. Their assertive stance against Yoon’s government exacerbated tensions, prompting him to take extreme measures to suppress dissent.
    • Failed Military Response: Despite sending military and police forces to various locations, including the National Assembly, their reluctance to act against peaceful protests highlighted the lack of support for Yoon’s decision. The National Assembly members voted overwhelmingly against martial law, leading to its withdrawal shortly after its declaration.

    How Has the Political Landscape Changed Following the Impeachment Proceedings?

    • Increased Polarization: The impeachment motion against Yoon, which passed with 204 votes in favour on December 14, 2024, reflects deepening political polarization in South Korea.
      • The ruling People Power Party (PPP) faced internal conflict over how to respond to the impeachment, indicating fractures within conservative ranks.
    • Opposition Power Dynamics: The opposition has gained momentum and confidence following the successful impeachment motion. This shift has allowed them to challenge Yoon’s policies more aggressively and seek accountability for alleged corruption within his administration.
    • Public Sentiment: Yoon’s popularity has plummeted due to his handling of both domestic and foreign policies, as well as controversies surrounding his wife. This decline has strengthened the opposition’s position and increased public demand for accountability.

    What are the potential implications of this crisis for South Korea’s democratic institutions?

    • Erosion of Democratic Norms: The use of martial law and aggressive tactics against political opponents raises concerns about the erosion of democratic norms in South Korea. Such actions could set a precedent for future administrations to bypass democratic processes in times of political strife.
    • Judicial Independence at Stake: The ongoing impeachment proceedings will be reviewed by the Constitutional Court, which may face pressure from public opinion and political factions. The outcome could influence perceptions of judicial independence and integrity within South Korea’s legal system.
    • Long-Term Stability Concerns: If political leaders continue to engage in vendetta politics and prioritize partisan interests over national unity, it could undermine public trust in democratic institutions. This instability may hinder effective governance and exacerbate societal divisions.

    What are the challenges in India that could prevent a South Korea-like scenario?

    • Diverse Federal Structure: India’s federal system and strong regional governments provide multiple centers of power, reducing the likelihood of concentrated national-level crises.
    • Robust Democratic Institutions: A vibrant judiciary, free press, and active civil society act as checks against potential abuses of power.
    • Electoral Accountability: Regular elections at various levels ensure political leaders remain answerable to the public, mitigating prolonged governance failures.
    • Cultural and Political Pluralism: India’s diversity in culture, language, and political ideologies discourages the kind of national consensus required for large-scale systemic crises like in South Korea.

    What should India do to prevent this type of situation? (Way forward)

    • Strengthen Democratic Institutions: India should prioritize the independence and resilience of democratic institutions, including the judiciary, Election Commission, and a free press, to ensure checks and balances against potential overreach by any government.
    • Promote Political Accountability and Transparency: Encourage bipartisan dialogue and accountability mechanisms to address corruption and governance issues, preventing political polarization and maintaining public trust in democratic processes.

    Mains question for practice:

    Q Analyze the factors that led to the declaration of martial law by President Yoon Suk Yeol in South Korea and discuss its implications for democratic institutions. What lessons can India draw from this crisis to strengthen its own democratic framework? (250 words) 15M

  • [21st December 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: It is for historians to dig for tell-tale remains, not bigots

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q) Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism? Justify your answer. (UPSC CSE 2022)

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC Mains have previously focused on the ‘Indian concept of secularism’ (2018) as well as the ‘tolerance, assimilation and pluralism’ of India (in 2022).

    Archaeologists typically dig historic sites to uncover ancient civilizations or cities, using scientific methods. However, excavating under one religion’s place of worship to find another’s is unusual and non-secular. Former CJI D.Y. Chandrachud found no issue with such a survey in the Gyanvapi mosque case, observing it might not violate the Places of Worship Act.

    Today’s editorial explores the issues and implications of survey or excavation in an active place of worship.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Conducting a survey or excavation in an active place of worship to determine its religious identity violates the rights granted under Article 26.

    What is the role of interpreting historical events like the Places of Worship Act?

    • Secular Intent: The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, enacted in 1991, aims to maintain the religious character of places of worship as they existed on August 15, 1947. Its purpose is to prevent communal tensions and preserve secularism in India by prohibiting the conversion of places of worship from one religion to another.
    • Historical Context: The Act was introduced in response to rising communal tensions, particularly during the Ram Janmabhoomi movement. It seeks to provide a legal framework that acknowledges historical grievances while promoting coexistence among different religious communities.
    • Legal Clarity: The Act explicitly states that any legal proceedings regarding the conversion of religious places existing as of 1947 shall abate, thereby providing a clear legal stance on maintaining the status quo and preventing future disputes over religious sites.

    How do ideological biases affect the understanding and what are the legal challenges?

    • Challenging Constitutionality: The constitutionality of the Places of Worship Act is currently under challenge in the Supreme Court. Critics argue that the choice of August 15, 1947, as a cut-off date is arbitrary and infringes on judicial review rights, suggesting that it limits access to courts for addressing historical injustices.
    • Specious Arguments: The argument that the date was chosen arbitrarily is countered by the rationale that it marks India’s independence and the establishment of a new sovereign state. Thus, it serves as a logical reference point for determining the religious character of places of worship.
    • Judicial Review Concerns: The claim that the Act undermines judicial review is contested; while it does prevent certain types of suits from proceeding, it does not eliminate judicial oversight entirely. The Act’s provisions aim to balance legislative authority with judicial processes.

    What are the Judicial Observations and Consequences?

    • CJI’s Remarks: Former Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud’s observation regarding surveys in places of worship sparked controversy. His statement suggested that such surveys might not violate the Places of Worship Act, leading lower courts to order surveys in mosques without fully considering their implications or legal standing.
    • Impact on Communal Harmony: The lower courts’ decisions to conduct surveys have led to increased tensions and even violence in some instances, highlighting how judicial observations can have significant real-world consequences on communal relations.
    • Legal Relevance of Surveys: The necessity for surveys to determine religious character is questioned since the Act already establishes what that character was as of 1947. This raises concerns about unnecessary provocations and potential violations of established law.
    What do fundamental rights say?

    • Article 26 Protections: Article 26 of the Indian Constitution grants religious denominations the right to manage their own affairs in matters of religion. Interference through surveys or excavations in places of worship can be viewed as a violation of this fundamental right.
    • Worship as a Fundamental Right: The act of worshipping in a mosque or church is protected under this Article. Any external interference aimed at redefining or questioning this right undermines the autonomy and dignity afforded to religious communities.
    • Historical Preservation vs. Political Agendas: While archaeology can reveal historical truths, using it as a tool for political or communal agendas risks distorting history and inciting further division among communities. It emphasizes the need for careful handling of sensitive historical narratives within legal frameworks.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Legal Safeguards: Ensure strict adherence to the Places of Worship Act, 1991, to prevent misuse of surveys or excavations that could disrupt communal harmony, while upholding secular principles and maintaining the religious status quo as of 1947.
    • Promote Judicial Prudence: Advocate for cautious and balanced judicial observations to avoid unintended consequences on communal relations, ensuring sensitive cases are handled with due consideration of legal and social implications.

    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/it-is-for-historians-to-dig-for-tell-tale-remains-not-bigots/article69010128.ece#:~:text=History%20has%20sequestered%20in%20the,of%20generations%20of%20unwary%20people

  • What are Hydrothermal Vents?

    Why in the News?

    • Indian oceanographers have captured the first-ever image of an active hydrothermal vent located 4,500 metres below the surface of the Indian Ocean.
      • This discovery is part of India’s Deep Ocean Mission under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, with a total outlay of ₹4,000 crore.

    What are Hydrothermal Vents?

    • Hydrothermal vents are typically found near tectonic plates, where cold water (about 2°C) near the ocean floor mixes with magma, leading to superheated water (up to 370°C) that emerges through chimneys.
    • These vents release mineral-rich plumes, including metals like copper, zinc, gold, silver, platinum, iron, cobalt, and nickel, making them significant for mineral exploration.

    Mineral Potential of Hydrothermal Vents:

    • Hydrothermal vent deposits are rich in valuable minerals such as copper, zinc, gold, silver, and nickel, which are highly sought after for various industries.
    • These vents can remain active for periods ranging from a few hundred years to 30,000 years, making them long-lasting and crucial for mineral exploration.
    • Scientists at NCPOR, confirmed that the image showed an active vent chimney with black smokers, and signs of chemosynthetic organisms thriving in this extreme environment.
      • This discovery enhances India’s Deep Ocean Mission, particularly the Samudrayaan mission, which focuses on mineral exploration from inactive hydrothermal vents.

    About the Hydrothermal Exploration Programme by NCPOR:

    Details
    • A scientific initiative by the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) to explore hydrothermal vents in the Indian Ocean, focusing on the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges.
    • Aimed at mineral exploration and studying ecosystems around hydrothermal vents.
    Aims and Objectives
    • Locate and Study Hydrothermal Vents: Identify active vents with minerals like copper, zinc, gold, and nickel.
    • Mineral Exploration: Part of India’s Deep Ocean Mission, aiming at valuable mineral exploration such as cobalt and platinum.
    • Biodiversity Studies: Understand chemosynthetic organisms that thrive in extreme conditions of the vents.
    Key Features of the Programme
    • Geophysical Surveys: Conducted since 2012 to detect temperature anomalies and turbidity in the water columns for locating vent fields.
    • Use of Advanced Technology: Utilizes Automatic Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and high-resolution imaging.
    • Collaborations: Partners with the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) for exploration in the Southern Indian Ocean.

     

    About the Deep Ocean Mission (DOM):

    • DOM is an ambitious initiative by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) approved in 2021 to develop technologies for deep-sea exploration.
    • Part of the 9 missions under the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC).

    Important updates in DOM:

    • Samudrayaan and Matsya6000:
      • Launched in 2021 under DOM, Samudrayaan is India’s flagship crewed expedition to reach a depth of 6,000 m in the Central Indian Ocean.
      • The mission will utilize Matsya6000, a deep-ocean submersible designed for a three-member crew.
        • Construction: Made from titanium alloy to endure pressures up to 6,000 bar.

    India’s Ocean Exploration Milestones:

    • 1981: Ocean studies began with a program on polymetallic nodules (PMN) initiated at CSIR-NIO, marked by the collection of the first nodule sample from the Arabian Sea aboard the research vessel Gaveshani.
    • 1987: India became the first country to receive Pioneer Investor status from the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
      • Allocated 1.5 lakh km² in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for nodule exploration, based on extensive surveys by CSIR-NIO.
    • 2002: India signed a contract with the ISA; after resource analysis, surrendered 50% of the allotted area, retaining 75,000 km².
    • Further studies narrowed the mining area to 18,000 km², identified as the First Generation Mine-site.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
    2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters
    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • What is Protected Area Regime (PAR)?

    Why in the News?

    • The Manipur government has announced that the Central government has re-imposed the Protected Area Regime (PAR) in Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland, all of which share borders with Myanmar.
      • The reimposition of the PAR comes after 13 years of relaxation and is aimed at addressing security concerns, primarily the alleged illegal immigration from Myanmar.

    What is the Protected Area Regime (PAR)?

    Details
    • Introduced under the Foreigners (Protected Areas) Order, 1958, which is part of the Foreigners Act, 1946.
    • The regime was created to regulate the movement of foreigners in sensitive areas near international borders.
    • It applies to regions between the Inner Line and the International Border, primarily areas close to Myanmar in these states.

    Objectives: To ensure national security by restricting foreign nationals’ access to sensitive regions.

    Implications:  

    • For Foreign Visitors: Special permits and approvals required, potentially discouraging tourism.
    • Impact on Tourism and Development: Could slow international tourism and investments, reversing earlier benefits.
    • Enhanced Security: Allows tighter control over foreign movements, addressing illegal migration.
    • Border Control: Strengthens border management, reducing unauthorized cross-border activities.
    Areas Covered
    • Pre-2010: Applied to all of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, and parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
    • 2010 Relaxation: The regime was relaxed for Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland, allowing foreigners to visit these areas without special permits.
    • 2024 Reimposition: The regime has been reimposed in these states, particularly due to security concerns related to illegal immigration and border management.
    Structural Mandate 
    • Mandate: Foreign nationals must apply for a Protected Area Permit (PAP) through the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) or state authorities to enter these areas.
    • Implementation: The PAPs specify the duration of stay and movement routes. Unauthorized extension or deviation from routes is prohibited. The system is managed under the Foreigners (Protected Areas) Order, 1958.
    • Exemptions: Some countries may have exemptions, and Indian citizens generally do not need PAPs to travel in these areas.

  • A Study of Budgets of 2024-25 (Fiscal Reforms by States) Report released by RBI

    Why in the News?

    • According to the RBI report on state finances, India’s fiscal deficit has increased from 2.8% of GDP in FY22 to a projected 3.2% in FY24, signaling that fiscal consolidation is being side-lined in favor of increasing expenditure.
      • Capital expenditure (capex) has risen from 2.2% of GDP in FY23 to a budgeted 3.2% in FY24, indicating increased investment in assets for future growth.

    Fiscal position of the States as per the Report

    • Fiscal Deficit:
      • The Gross Fiscal Deficit (GFD) of states is projected to rise from 2.7% of GDP in FY2022-23 to 2.9% of GDP in FY2023-24.
      • This rise indicates that fiscal consolidation has been put on hold, with states continuing to spend more than their revenues.
      • Many states have budgeted for fiscal deficits above the 3% of GSDP mark, including Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal, among others.
    • Revenue Expenditure:
      • Revenue Expenditure is expected to increase to 14.6% of GDP in FY2025, up from 13.5% in FY2024, indicating a rise in the current expenditure of states.
    • Capital Expenditure (Capex):
      • States have ramped up their capital expenditure (spending on creating assets), which has increased from 2.2% of GDP in FY2023 to 3.2% of GDP in FY2024.
      • This increase is in line with the government’s focus on infrastructure and long-term growth.
    • State Revenue:
      • State revenues are projected to increase from 13.3% of GDP in FY2024 to 14.3% in FY2025, driven by improved tax collections.
      • There has been a marked improvement in own tax revenue buoyancy compared to the pre-Covid period.
    • Debt-to-GDP Ratio:
      • The debt-to-GDP ratio for states has increased slightly to 28.8% in FY2024, from 28.5% in FY2023.
      • States with high fiscal deficits tend to have debt-to-GDP ratios above the national average, which suggests they have been sustaining deficits for a longer time.
    • Borrowing Trends:
      • States have shifted significantly towards market borrowings.
      • The share of market borrowings in financing the fiscal deficit has increased from 17% in 2005-06 to 79% in FY2024-25.
    • Recommendations:
      • The report suggests prudent management of subsidies, rationalization of centrally sponsored schemes, debt consolidation, and the adoption of climate and outcome budgeting to improve state fiscal health.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Review Committee Report has recommended a debt to GDP ratio of 60% for the general (combined) government by 2023, comprising 40% for the Central Government and 20% for the State Governments.
    2. The Central Government has domestic liabilities of 21% of GDP as compared to that of 49% of GDP of the State Governments.
    3. As per the Constitution of India, it is mandatory for a State to take the Central Government’s consent for raising any loan if the former owes any outstanding liabilities to the latter.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Niti Aayog moots policy measures to develop workers’ accommodation around factories

    Why in the News?

    NITI Aayog has proposed a set of policy interventions to enable the creation of mega workers’ accommodations near factories under its initiative called S.A.F.E (Site Adjacent Factory Employee) Accommodation-Worker Housing for Manufacturing Growth.

    About the S.A.F.E. (Site Adjacent Factory Employee) Initiative

    Overview
    • S.A.F.E. initiative by NITI Aayog aims to provide affordable dormitory-style housing for workers near industrial areas, especially migrant laborers, including women.
      • The housing will include essential amenities like water, electricity, and sanitation, improving workers’ living conditions and enhancing productivity.
    Key Features
    • Location: Housing will be near industrial hubs to minimize commute time.
    • Basic Amenities: Includes water, electricity, and sanitation.
    • Ownership: Non-transferable accommodations, strictly for worker use, ensuring worker welfare.
    Significance
    • Worker Welfare: Improves living standards and promotes gender inclusivity.
    • Productivity: Reduces commute time, enhancing productivity and reducing attrition.
    • Economic Growth: Attracts global investors and supports India’s manufacturing growth target of 25% GDP by 2047.
    Key Recommendations
    • Tax & GST Benefits: Reclassification for tax exemptions to make the initiative financially viable.
    • Zoning Laws: Amendments for mixed-use developments to integrate worker housing.
    • Viability Gap Funding (VGF): 30%-40% of project cost for financial support.
    • Environmental Clearances: Streamlining for faster approvals.
    • Financial Support: Public-private partnerships for development and management.
  • Droughts

    Droughts

    Broadly drought is perceived as a sharply felt water deficit caused by variations in the natural hydro-meteorological factors, agro-ecological conditions, and moisture requirements of crops under prevailing cropping choices (systems, patterns).

    • A third of the country is drought-prone. It affects parts of Rajasthan (chronically), Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (MP), Uttar Pradesh (UP), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.

    Nodal Ministry: Min. of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW)

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    Types of Droughts:

    1. Meteorological Drought occurs when there is a prolonged period of significantly below-average precipitation. An example is a region experiencing several consecutive months of below-average rainfall, which leads to water shortages.
    2. Agricultural Drought: When there is insufficient moisture for crops and vegetation to grow, impacting agriculture. Example: A prolonged dry spell affecting crop yields and forcing farmers to irrigate more
    3. Hydrological Drought: This type reduces water availability in streams, rivers, and reservoirs. Example: A river experiencing low water levels due to prolonged dry conditions.
    4. Socioeconomic Drought: When the impact of a drought extends to economic and social systems, affecting communities. An example is a drought causing food and water shortages, leading to economic hardship and migration.

    Criteria To Declare:

    The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:

    1. Meteorological drought — A situation when there is more than a 25% decrease from the long-term average precipitation over an area.
    2. Agricultural drought, — the situation when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate to support healthy crop growth
    3. Hydrological drought — Prolonged meteorological drought manifested in depletion of surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even when the rainfall is normal if there has been a substantial reduction in surface water holding.

    Causes:

    1. Rainfall Deficiency:  Significant deficiency in rainfall, especially during the monsoon season, below-average monsoon rainfall can lead to drought conditions.
    2. El Niño and La Niña: These climate phenomena in the Pacific Ocean can disrupt the normal monsoon patterns in India. El Niño is associated with drier conditions, while La Niña can bring excess rainfall or erratic monsoons.
    3. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): IOD events, characterized by sea surface temperature anomalies in the Indian Ocean, can influence the monsoon. A positive IOD can lead to drier conditions in India, contributing to droughts.
    4. Delayed or Erratic Monsoons: Sometimes, the monsoon onset may be delayed, or the rains may be irregular, leading to uneven distribution of rainfall across regions and drought in some areas.
    5. Temperature Extremes: High temperatures and heat waves can exacerbate drought conditions by increasing evaporation rates and drying out soil and water sources.
    6. Deforestation and Land Degradation: Land-use changes, deforestation, and soil degradation can reduce the land’s capacity to retain moisture, making it more susceptible to drought.
    7. Over-Extraction of Groundwater: Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation and domestic use can deplete aquifers and contribute to drought conditions.
    8. Inefficient Water Management:  inefficient irrigation methods and mismanagement of water resources, exacerbate water scarcity during droughts.
    9. Climate Change: Long-term climate change can alter precipitation patterns and increase the frequency and severity of drought events.
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    Mitigation:

    • Drought Monitoring and Early Warning Systems:
      1. Establish and maintain EW systems to track rainfall, soil moisture, reservoir levels, and crop conditions.
      2. Provide timely information to farmers, policymakers, and the public about impending drought conditions.
    • Contingency Planning:
      1. Prepare contingency plans at the district and state levels to respond to drought situations promptly.
      2. Ensure these plans include provisions for food and water supply, livestock care, and support for affected communities.
    • Water Management:
      1. Promote efficient water management practices, including rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, and the equitable distribution of water resources.
      2. Encourage the construction of small-scale water storage structures like check dams and farm ponds.
    • Crop Diversification and Resilience:
      1. Encourage crop diversification to reduce dependency on water-intensive crops.
      2. Promote the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties and sustainable agricultural practices.
    • Social Safety Nets:
      1. Establish mechanisms to provide food and financial assistance to vulnerable populations during drought emergencies.
      2. Identify and prioritize the needs of marginalized communities and vulnerable groups.
    • Awareness and Education:
      1. Educate farmers and communities about drought preparedness, water conservation, and sustainable land use practices.
      2. Promote training programs for farmers on resilient farming techniques.
    • Research and Development: Invest in research and development to improve drought forecasting, crop varieties, and agricultural practices suited to arid and semi-arid regions.
    • Infrastructure Development: Invest in rural infrastructure development, including roads, irrigation systems, and storage facilities to improve agricultural resilience.
    • Cross-Sectoral Coordination: Facilitate coordination among various government departments, agencies, and stakeholders involved in drought management.
    • Legislation and Policy Framework: Review and update drought-related legislation and policies to ensure they are responsive to evolving drought challenges.

    NDMA Guidelines:

    There is a need to develop a multi-criteria index to classify droughts based on several factors such as the following:

    1. Meteorological (rainfall, temperature, etc.)
    2. Soil conditions (depth, type, available water content, etc.)
    3. Surface water use (proportion of irrigated area, surface water supplies, etc.)
    4. Groundwater (availability, utilization, etc.)
    5. Crop (cropping pattern changes, land use, crop conditions, anomalies in crop condition, etc.)
    6. Socio-economic (proportion of weaker sections, poverty, size class of farm holdings, etc.)

    Way Forward:

    It is essential that along with a drought monitoring system, medium and long-term area-specific plans be prepared for drought-proofing of susceptible areas. While drought-proofing measures can significantly improve the coping capacity and dampen the impact of drought.

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  • Wave Action

    Wave Action

    Wave Action: Physical processes and movements associated with the propagation of waves in a fluid medium, such as water or air. It influences coastal erosion, weather patterns, and the design of structures like bridges and offshore platforms.

    • The IPCC (2013) has projected global sea-level rise for the period 2081-2100, compared with 1986-2005, to be 0.29-0.82 metres.
    • These projections now include a contribution from changes in ice-sheet out-flow, for which the central projection is 0.11 metres.
    • It is very likely that the rate of global mean sea-level rise during the 21st century will exceed the rate observed during the period 1970-2010 for all scenarios.
    • About 70 % of the global coastlines are projected to experience a sea-level change within 20 % of the global mean sea-level change.
    • Some models suggest sea-level rises of between 1 metre and 3 metres in response to carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations above 700 parts per million.
    • Studies of the last interglacial period (e.g. Kopp et al., 2009) indicate a very high probability of a sea-level rise of 2 metres over 1 000 years, and cannot rule out values in excess of 4 metres.
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    States Prone:

    1. Gujarat: The coastline of Gujarat along the Arabian Sea is exposed to significant wave action and coastal erosion.
    2. Maharashtra: Coastal areas of Maharashtra, including cities like Mumbai, are vulnerable to monsoon storms, tidal waves, and wave action.
    3. Goa: Goa faces risks associated with cyclones and storm surges, leading to wave action and erosion.
    4. Karnataka: It is susceptible to wave action during monsoon seasons and cyclonic events.
    5. Kerala: Kerala is prone to wave action, particularly during the southwest monsoon, and faces risks from storm surges.
    6. Tamil Nadu: Exposed to cyclonic activity, leading to wave action and coastal erosion.
    7. Andhra Pradesh: Vulnerable to cyclones and associated wave action, especially along the Bay of Bengal coast.
    8. Odisha: The extensive coastline along the Bay of Bengal makes it susceptible to cyclones, storm surges, and wave action.
    9. West Bengal: Coastal regions of West Bengal, including the Sundarbans delta, are at risk of tidal waves and wave action during cyclones.
    10. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Located in the Bay of Bengal, these islands are prone to wave action and coastal hazards, including tsunamis and storm surges.

    Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES)

    Types:

    1. Wind Waves: Generated by local winds, often seen on the ocean’s surface. Example: Ripples on a pond or whitecaps on the sea.
    2. Swells: Long-period waves that have traveled far from their area of origin. Example: Groundswell generated by distant storms in the ocean.
    3. Tsunamis: Large, long-period waves usually caused by undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Example: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
    4. Tidal Waves: Caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, leading to rising and falling tides. Example: Daily high and low tides in coastal areas.

    Criteria to Declare:

    It typically doesn’t follow specific criteria, declaring a specific event related to wave action (e.g., a storm surge or tsunami) as a disaster or emergency may include:

    1. Magnitude and Impact: The severity of wave height, energy, and potential impact on human life, property, and the environment.
    2. Forecast and Warning: The issuance of official forecasts and warnings by IMD and NDMA.
    3. Extent of Damage: Caused by impact on infrastructure, transportation, and essential services.
    4. Local Jurisdictional Authority: Declarations of emergencies or disasters typically made at the local or regional level by municipal governments or state disaster management agencies.
    5. Coordination: The coordination of first responders, and organizations involved in disaster management.
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    Causes of Wave Action :

    1. Wind: Wind blowing over the water body generates friction with the water, creating ripples that evolve into waves. Strong winds can lead to larger and more powerful waves.
    2. Seismic Activity: Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions beneath the ocean can generate tsunamis, which are large and destructive waves with extremely long wavelengths.
    3. Gravitational Pull of the Moon and Sun: Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun. This gravitational pull results in the ebb and flow of water and can create wave-like motions.
    4. Underwater Geological Features: Submerged features such as underwater ridges, seamounts, and continental shelves can influence the formation and behavior of waves.
    5. Human Activities: Activities like ship traffic, coastal construction, and dredging lead to altered wave action along coastlines.

    Mitigation:

    • Coastal Engineering Structures:
      1. Seawalls: Constructing seawalls or revetments along the coastline can help absorb and deflect wave energy,
      2. Breakwaters: Breakwaters are structures built offshore to reduce the energy of incoming waves.
      3. Groynes and Jetties: designed to trap sand and sediment, helped to build and maintain beaches.
    • Beach Nourishment: Adding sand or other sediments to eroded beaches enhancing their ability to absorb wave energy.
    • Dune Restoration: Restoring or creating dunes with vegetation can help stabilize coastlines and provide protection.
    • Coastal Zoning and Land-Use Planning: Implementing zoning regulations in high-risk coastal areas can reduce exposure to wave hazards.
    • Early Warning Systems: In areas prone to tsunamis or storm surges, early warning systems can provide advance notice to residents, allowing them to evacuate to safer areas.
    • Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Protecting and restoring coastal ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands can act as natural buffers against wave energy.
    • Climate Adaptation Strategies: As climate change intensifies wave action, long-term adaptation strategies are essential for coastal resilience.
    • Education and Awareness: Public awareness campaigns can inform about the risks associated.
    • International Cooperation: In cases of transboundary wave hazards, international cooperation and agreements can help coordinate efforts to mitigate risks and respond to disasters.

    NDMA Guidelines:

    1. You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated emergency information.
    2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping injured or trapped persons.
    3. Help people who require special assistance—Infants, elderly people,
    4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get through.
    5. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury following a disaster is cut feet.
    6. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings. Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES.
    7. Check for gas leaks.
    8. Look for electrical system damage.
    9. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
    10. Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for insurance claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.

    Way Forward:

    1. It involves further research, sustainable harnessing of wave energy, and environmental impact assessment.
    2. It’s essential to develop efficient wave energy technologies while minimizing ecological disruption and ensuring long-term viability.
    3. Collaboration between scientists, engineers, and policymakers is key to advancing this renewable energy source.
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  • [20th December 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Reality check on Sri Lanka’s Tamil question

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q) ‘India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka.’ Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in the light of the preceding statement. (UPSC CSE 2022)

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC Mains have focused on ‘India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka’ (in 2022), and ‘how domestic factors influence foreign policy between India and Srilanka’ (in 2013).

    Sri Lankan President Anura Kumara Dissanayake’s recent visit to India drew significant attention, marking his first foreign trip since taking office. The visit highlighted the shift in Sri Lanka’s political landscape, with the National People’s Power’s surprising electoral success. India’s priorities have also evolved, focusing on countering China’s influence in the region.

    Today’s editorial highlights the importance of Sri Lanka for India. This content can be used to substantiate the challenges and significance due to Srilanka for India in UPSC IAS mains paper GS2.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The joint statement released by New Delhi and Colombo during the Sri Lankan President’s visit to India shows what is currently important to both countries.

    What is the joint statement released by New Delhi and Colombo during the Sri Lankan President’s visit?

    • Bilateral Cooperation: The statement emphasizes the deep-rooted cultural ties and geographical proximity that underpin the India-Sri Lanka partnership. 
      • Both leaders reaffirmed their commitment to enhancing cooperation in areas such as parliamentary exchanges, development cooperation, debt restructuring, energy cooperation, trade and investment, and strategic defense engagement.
    • Economic Support and Stability: President Anura Kumara Dissanayake expressed gratitude for India’s support during Sri Lanka’s economic crisis, highlighting India’s provision of nearly USD 4 billion in aid. 
      • The leaders agreed on an investment-based approach to assist Sri Lanka’s economic recovery and growth, while also addressing shared security interests in the Indian Ocean Region

     

    What is 13th Amandment?

    • The 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka, passed in 1987, was introduced as part of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord signed between Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President J.R. Jayewardene. 
    • Its primary aim was to provide a framework for the devolution of power to provincial councils, thereby addressing the demands for greater autonomy from the Tamil minority, particularly in the Northern and Eastern provinces.

    What is the current status of the 13th Amendment’s implementation in Srilanka?

    • Stagnation in Implementation: The 13th Amendment, which was designed to provide power devolution to provincial councils in Sri Lanka, has seen little progress in its implementation. 
      • The recent joint statement from India and Sri Lanka did not address the amendment or the political solutions for Tamil aspirations, highlighting a lack of commitment from the current government led by President Anura Kumara Dissanayake.
    • Political Hesitance: The Dissanayake administration has avoided explicitly referencing the 13th Amendment due to its association with “Indian imposition,” which is viewed negatively by the Sinhala-Buddhist majority. Instead, the government’s focus has shifted towards broader promises of provincial council elections and constitutional reforms without a clear plan for implementing the amendment.

    How do historical grievances impact contemporary Tamil-Sinhala relations?

    • Historical Conflict: Historical grievances from the civil war and ongoing issues related to Tamil rights significantly affect Tamil-Sinhala relations. The Tamil community continues to seek justice for wartime atrocities and greater political agency, while many in the Sinhala majority often view discussions about devolution and federalism with scepticism.
    • Political Dynamics: The recent electoral success of the National People’s Power (NPP) signifies a shift in Tamil political engagement, as Tamils have shown support for a party that traditionally opposed Indian intervention. 
      • However, this shift raises concerns about how effectively the NPP will address Tamil issues without alienating its base among Sinhala nationalists.

    What are the prospects for genuine reconciliation and autonomy for Tamils in Sri Lanka?

    • Need for Clarity: There is an urgent need for the NPP to clarify its position on Tamil rights and reconciliation. While the party’s manifesto promises provincial council elections and constitutional reforms, it lacks a concrete strategy for addressing historical grievances or ensuring autonomy for Tamils.
    • Challenges Ahead: Genuine reconciliation remains uncertain as long as past grievances are not adequately addressed. The Tamil polity must engage more directly with its constituents rather than relying on international actors. 
      • The NPP’s ability to foster inter-ethnic peace will depend on its willingness to confront historical failures and implement meaningful policies that reflect the aspirations of all communities in Sri Lanka.

    Way forward: 

    • Clear Political Vision: The NPP should outline a concrete plan for addressing Tamil rights, implementing the 13th Amendment, and ensuring provincial autonomy, while balancing the demands of both Tamil and Sinhala communities.
    • Inclusive Dialogue: Engage in direct, inclusive dialogue with all ethnic groups, focusing on national reconciliation and addressing past grievances, to foster a durable peace and meaningful political solution for all communities in Sri Lanka.

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