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Subject: Art and Culture

  • Dalai Lama and His Reincarnation

    Why in the News?

    Turning 90 on July 6, 2025, the 14th Dalai Lama gave his clearest message yet that the Dalai Lama lineage will continue, challenging China’s stance.

    Who is the Dalai Lama?

    • Spiritual Head: The Dalai Lama leads the Gelug (Yellow Hat) school, the most influential tradition in Tibetan Buddhism.
    • Meaning: The title “Dalai Lama” means “Ocean of Wisdom”, first conferred in the 16th century by Mongol ruler Altan Khan.Role: He is considered the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, in human form.

    Tenzin Gyatso: the 14th Dalai Lama:

    • Early Life: The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, was born in 1935 in Taktser, Tibet, and enthroned in 1940 after recognition in 1939.
    • Exile to India: Following China’s occupation of Tibet, he took asylum in India in 1959 and established the Tibetan Government-in-Exile in Dharamsala.
    • Political Transition: In 2011, he relinquished political authority, handing it over to an elected leader of the Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile (TPiE) but retained his spiritual role.
    • Global Peace Advocate: He received the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize for non-violent advocacy and is a prominent promoter of interfaith harmony and secular ethics.

    Key Notes on Tibetan Buddhism:

    • Theology: Tibetan Buddhism blends Mahayana philosophy, Tantric (Vajrayana) rituals, and Bon traditions.
    • Major Schools: It includes four schools—Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug—with the Gelug school founded by Je Tsongkhapa in the 14th century.
    • Reincarnation System: Leaders like the Panchen Lama and Karmapa are part of the Tulku system, believed to be reincarnated teachers.
    • Textual Foundation: Core texts include the Kangyur (Buddha’s teachings) and Tengyur (commentaries by scholars).
    • Meditation Traditions: Practices like Dzogchen and Mahamudra focus on realizing the true nature of mind.
    • Institutional Legacy: Monasteries such as Drepung, Ganden, and Tashi Lhunpo are vital centers for learning and ritual.
    • Global Influence: Tibetan Buddhism thrives across the Himalayas and is expanding globally, especially in Western countries.
    [UPSC 2018] With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world?

    Options: (a) Avalokiteshvara (b) Lokesvara (c) Maitreya* (d) Padmapani

     

  • Prada-Kolhapuri Cultural Misappropriation Debate

    Why in the News?

    The Prada incident, involving footwear resembling India’s GI-tagged Kolhapuri chappals, has reignited debates on cultural respect, equitable benefit sharing, and the need for stronger global enforcement of GI rights.

    prada

    About the Kolhapuri Chappal Controversy:

    • Cultural Origin: They originated in Kolhapur and nearby districts in Maharashtra and Karnataka, dating back to the 12th–13th century, once worn by royals.
    • Craftsmanship and Features: These chappals are handmade from vegetable-tanned leather, use no nails or synthetic parts, and feature a T-strap design in natural tones.
    • GI Tag Recognition: They received a GI tag in 2019, covering eight districts across the two states.
    • Allegations Against Prada: Italian luxury brand Prada was accused of unauthorised cultural appropriation for selling similar sandals without acknowledging the traditional origin.
    • Global Enforcement Gap: The controversy highlights the limited international protection for GI-tagged goods and the need for stronger legal safeguards abroad.

    Earlier Cultural Misappropriation Cases:

    • Basmati Rice (1997): The US Patent and Trademark Office granted a patent to Ricetec Inc., claiming new “lines and grains” of basmati rice. After diplomatic and legal pressure, Ricetec was barred from using the term “Basmati.”
    • Turmeric (1995): A U.S. patent was granted for turmeric’s wound-healing properties, a use long documented in Ayurveda. CSIR successfully challenged and had the patent revoked.
    • Neem (2000): The European Patent Office revoked a patent granted to the USDA and W.R. Grace for neem-based antifungal formulations, citing that such usage existed in Indian traditional knowledge.

    Back2Basics: Geographical Indication (GI) Tags

    • Purpose: A GI tag is a form of intellectual property that certifies a product’s origin from a specific place where its quality or reputation is uniquely linked to that location.
    • Significance: GI tags help preserve cultural heritage, promote rural livelihoods, and enable market access for indigenous communities.
    • Legal Framework in India: In India, GI registration is governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, in force since 2003, and managed by the DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce.
    • Ownership and Validity: A GI tag is collectively owned by local producers, valid for 10 years, and renewable indefinitely, unlike private trademarks.
    • Examples of GI Goods: India has 658 GI goods, including Darjeeling tea, Madhubani paintings, Pashmina shawls, Chanderi sarees, and Kancheepuram silk.
    • Jurisdiction of Protection: GI protection is territorial, meaning legal misuse can only be challenged within the registered country, unless separately protected abroad.
    • Global Legal Backing: GI rights are supported by international treaties like the Paris Convention (1883) and the TRIPS Agreement (1995).

  • UP’s Salkhan Fossil Park makes it to UNESCO tentative list

    Why in the News?

    Salkhan Fossil Park, also known as Sonbhadra Fossils Park, has been recently added to UNESCO’s Tentative List for World Heritage Sites.

    About Salkhan Fossil Park:

    • Location: It is located in Salkhan village, Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh.
    • Fossil Significance: It is renowned for its stromatolite fossils, ancient layered structures formed by cyanobacteria through photosynthesis.
    • Age of Fossils: These fossils are estimated to be up to 1.4 billion years old, dating to the Mesoproterozoic era.
    • Scientific Value: Preserved in Bhander limestone of the Vindhyan Supergroup, the site is one of the world’s richest Proterozoic rock collections.
    • Significance:
      • Evolutionary Insights: The fossils offer key evidence of early microbial life and events like the Great Oxidation Event, helping us understand Earth’s early biosphere.
      • Ecological Context: It lies within the Kaimoor Wildlife Sanctuary, enhancing its ecological and conservation value.

    Back2Basics: UNESCO’s Tentative List

    • Definition: It is a country’s inventory of sites proposed for future inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
    • Nomination Process: A site must be on the Tentative List for at least one year before formal nomination.
    • Evaluation Criteria: Sites are assessed for natural, cultural, or mixed heritage value, based on global significance.
    • India’s Status: As of June 2025, India has 63 sites on its Tentative List, spanning ecosystems, monuments, and landscapes.
    • Benefits of Inclusion: While not guaranteeing World Heritage status, inclusion raises awareness, improves funding, and strengthens conservation.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

    1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

    How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • Puri Rath Yatra of Lord Jagannath

    Why in the News?

    The annual Rath Yatra of Lord Jagannath at Puri, Odisha, has begun today.

    About Rath Yatra:

    • About: Rath Yatra is an annual Hindu chariot festival celebrated in Puri, Odisha, in honour of Lord Jagannath, a form of Lord Vishnu.
    • Legend: The festival commemorates the journey of Lord Jagannath, along with his siblings Lord Balabhadra and Devi Subhadra, from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple, their birthplace.
    • Occurrence: It is held on the second day of Ashadha Shukla Paksha (June–July), according to the Odia calendar.
    • Procession: The deities are placed in three massive wooden chariots and pulled by devotees along the Grand Road (Bada Danda) for about 3 km.
    • Significance: It is one of the four sacred pilgrimages (Char Dham) in Hinduism and allows non-Hindus to have darshan of the deities, unlike entry to the temple.

    Key Events of the Rath Yatra:

    • Pahandi Bije: The ceremonial procession where the deities are carried from the temple to the chariots.
    • Chhera Panhara: A ritual where the Puri King sweeps the chariots with a golden broom, signifying humility and equality.
    • Three Chariot Pulling: Devotees pull the chariots—Nandighosa (Jagannath), Taladhwaja (Balabhadra), and Darpadalan (Subhadra)—toward Gundicha Temple.
    • Bahuda Yatra: The return journey to the Jagannath Temple, held on the 10th day of Ashadha Shukla Paksha.
    • Poda Pitha Offering: The deities are offered traditional cakes at Mausimaa Temple during their return.
    • Suna Besha: On return, the deities are adorned with gold ornaments on their chariots.
    • Niladri Bije: Final ritual where the deities re-enter the sanctum; marks the end of the Rath Yatra.
    • Rasagola Divas: Devotees offer Rasagola sweets to Goddess Lakshmi to appease her for not being included in the journey.

    Back2Basics: Jagannath Puri Temple

    • The Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha, is a major Vaishnavite shrine dedicated to Lord Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna.
    • The current structure was rebuilt starting in the 10th century by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
    • The temple showcases the Oriya style of architecture, known for sculptural richness and graceful forms.
    • It spans over 400,000 sq. ft., enclosed by the 20-foot-high Meghanada Pacheri.
    • An inner wall, called Kurma Bedha, surrounds the main sanctum.
    • Main Structural Sections:
      1. Deula/Vimana/Garba Griha: Sanctum sanctorum housing the deities on the Ratnavedi, built in Rekha Deula style.
      2. Mukhashala: The frontal porch.
      3. Nata Mandir/Jagamohan: The audience or dancing hall.
      4. Bhoga Mandapa: The hall of offerings.

     

    [UPSC 2009] Mahamastakabhisheka, a great religious event, is associated with and done for who of the following?

    Options: (a) Bahubali * (b) Buddha (c) Mahavir (d) Nataraja

     

  • Ambubachi Mela at Kamakhya Temple

    Why in the News?

    Pilgrims have begun arriving in Guwahati, Assam, for the Ambubachi Mela, held annually at the Kamakhya Temple, one of the most sacred centres of Tantric Shaktism in India.

    About Ambubachi Mela:

    • Festival Overview: Ambubachi Mela is an annual Hindu fertility festival celebrated at the Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, Assam.
    • Timing and Season: It is held during the Assamese month of Ahaar (mid-June), coinciding with the monsoon season.
    • Religious Significance: The festival marks the annual menstruation of Goddess Kamakhya symbolising fertility and life-giving power.
    • Ritual Closure: During the festival, the sanctum sanctorum (innermost sacred chamber) of the temple is closed for three days to observe the goddess’s retreat.
    • Ceremonial Reopening: The temple reopens ceremonially on the fourth day, when lakhs of devotees gather for darshan.
    • Pilgrim Footfall: It is considered the largest religious gathering in Northeast India, with pilgrims arriving from across the country.
    • Etymology: The name ‘Ambubachi’ literally means ‘water flowing’ (denoting menstruation and the flow of life).
    • Spiritual Tradition: The practice is rooted in Tantric traditions (esoteric spiritual practices focusing on divine feminine energy).
    • Cultural Observance: During this time, agricultural activities are halted to honour the goddess’s rest and align with nature’s rhythms.

    Notable Features:

    • No Idol Worship: No idol is worshipped; instead, the process of menstruation itself (biological and divine function) is venerated.
    • Sacred Tokens: Devotees receive pieces of red cloth as sacred amulets.
    • Spiritual Discipline: The mela includes ritual abstentions (temporary renunciation of daily activities), devotional silence, and spiritual observance (religious discipline).

    About Kamakhya Temple:

    • Mythology: It is one of the 51 Shakti Peethas (sacred sites where body parts of Goddess Sati are believed to have fallen).
    • Location: It is located on Nilachal Hill beside the Brahmaputra River in Guwahati, Assam.
    • Architectural Style: Architecturally, the temple follows the Nilachala Style (a blend of North Indian Nagara and Mughal Saracenic architecture).
    • Structural Layout: The structure includes 5 chambers:
      • Garbhagriha (sanctuary where the main deity resides),
      • Antarala (vestibule or connecting passage),
      • Jaganmohan (main audience hall),
      • Bhogmandir (ritual chamber where offerings are made), and
      • Natmandir (hall for performances and religious gatherings).
    • Sacred Symbol: Instead of an idol, the temple houses a yoni-shaped stone (symbol of the goddess’s womb and creative energy).
    • Tantric Centre: It is one of the most revered Tantric pilgrimage sites (destinations for practitioners of spiritual and mystical rituals).
    • Cultural Depth: The temple’s rituals and legends have deep mythological (related to ancient stories and beliefs), astronomical, and cultural significance, especially during Ambubachi.

     

    [UPSC 2017] Consider the following pairs : Traditions Communities

    1. Chaliha Sahib Festival — Sindhis

    2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra — Gonds

    3. Wari-Warkari — Santhals

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only *(b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) None of the above

     

  • In news: Prime Ministers Museum and Library 

    Why in the News?

    The 47th Annual General Meeting (AGM) of the Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library (PMML) Society, chaired by the Prime Minister, was recently held.

    About the Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library (PMML)

    • Overview: The PMML, earlier called the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML), is located at Teen Murti House, just south of Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi.
    • Origin: Built in 1929–30 as the residence of the Commander-in-Chief of British India, it was designed by Robert Tor Russel as part of Lutyens’ Delhi.
    • Nehru’s Residence: After independence, it became the home of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru from 1948 to 1964 and was later dedicated to him following his death.
    • Establishment: The PMML Society was founded on April 1, 1966, while the original museum was inaugurated on November 14, 1964, by President Dr S. Radhakrishnan to commemorate Nehru’s 75th birth anniversary.
    • Renaming in 2023: The name was changed from NMML to PMML to reflect a broader mandate — documenting and honouring all Indian Prime Ministers, not just Nehru.
    • Administrative Structure: PMML is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Culture, with the Prime Minister of India as the head of the Society.
    • Mission and Scope: The institution promotes advanced research in modern and contemporary Indian history, especially related to Prime Ministers, governance, and the evolution of Indian democracy.
    • Key Institutions: PMML includes:
      • The Pradhanmantri Sangrahalaya (Museum).
      • A world-class library.
      • The Centre for Contemporary Studies.
      • The Nehru Planetarium.

  • 11th International Yoga Day

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister led the celebrations for the 11th International Day of Yoga on 21st June.

    About International Day of Yoga:

    • Celebration: The International Day of Yoga is observed annually on June 21 across the world since 2015, following a UN resolution in 2014.
    • Proposed by India at UN: Prime Minister Narendra Modi proposed the idea during his UN address in September 2014, highlighting yoga’s global relevance.
    • UN Recognition: The resolution was introduced by India’s Permanent Representative and was adopted without a vote, supported by 177 countries.
    • First Observance: The first celebration was held on June 21, 2015, with events in cities like New York, Paris, Beijing, and New Delhi.
    • Purpose of the Day: The day recognizes Yoga’s health benefits, including physical fitness, stress relief, and spiritual well-being.

    Back2Basics: Yoga

    • Origin: Yoga originated in ancient India and is deeply rooted in Indian philosophy, spirituality, and culture.
    • Meaning of Yoga: The word “Yoga” is derived from the Sanskrit root “yuj”, meaning “to join or unite” the mind, body, and spirit.
    • Historical References:
      • Rig Veda and Upanishads: Yoga-like practices are mentioned in the Rig Veda (c. 1500 BCE) and further developed in the Upanishads (800–400 BCE).
      • Patanjali’s Contribution: Sage Patanjali, considered the father of classical yoga, compiled the Yoga Sutras around the 2nd century BCE, outlining a systematic philosophy.
    • Eight Limbs of Ashtanga Yoga (Yoga Sutras)
      1. Yama – Ethical principles (e.g., non-violence, truth).
      2. Niyama – Personal observances (e.g., cleanliness, contentment).
      3. Asana – Physical postures.
      4. Pranayama – Breath control.
      5. Pratyahara – Withdrawal of senses.
      6. Dharana – Concentration.
      7. Dhyana – Meditation.
      8. Samadhi – State of spiritual absorption or self-realization.
    • Schools and Styles of Yoga:
      • Multiple Traditions: Yoga is practiced in various schools, each with distinct methods and focus.
      • Popular Styles: These include Hatha, Vinyasa, Ashtanga, Iyengar, Kundalini, Bikram, and Yin Yoga, catering to both beginners and advanced practitioners.

    Why was 21st June chosen for this day?

    • The date of June 21 was chosen because it is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere, symbolising spiritual significance across various cultures.
    • In Hindu mythology, this day marks the transition to Dakshinayana and is associated with the first yogi, Shiva, who began teaching yoga to humanity.

    Tap to read more about Summer Solstice (June 21).

     

    [2014] Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?

    (a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

    (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika

    (c) Lokayata and Kapalika

    (d) Sankhya and Yoga

     

  • India’s First Epigraphical reference to Halley’s Comet found in Vijayanagar Period

    Why in the News?

    The first Indian inscriptional reference to Halley’s Comet has been discovered on a copper plate dated 1456 CE, from the Vijayanagar Period.

    What does the inscription say?

    • The inscription was found on a copper plate dated June 28, 1456 CE, during the Vijayanagar Empire, preserved at the Sri Mallikarjunaswamy temple in Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh.
    • Written in Sanskrit using the Nagari script, it describes the sighting of a comet (dhūmaketu) and a meteor shower, which coincide with the documented appearance of Halley’s Comet that year.
    • The inscription records a village grant made by King Mallikarjuna of Vijayanagar to a Vedic scholar named Limgaṇarya from Kaḍiyalapura (likely present-day Kaḍiyapulanka, Kadapa district).
    • The grant’s purpose is explicitly mentioned: “to mitigate the great calamity believed to arise due to the appearance of a comet and meteor shower”—a reference to traditional beliefs of such celestial events being inauspicious.
    • The Sanskrit phrase “Prakāśyāya mahōtpāta śāntyartham dattavān vibhuḥ” translates to “this grant was made in order to pacify the calamities that may arise due to the illuminating comets and meteor shower upon the king and his kingdom.”
    • Though dhūmaketus (comets) are referenced in ancient Indian astronomical texts, this is the earliest inscriptional record linking a comet to a specific historical date and royal response.

    Tap to read more about the Vijayanagara Empire.

    About Halley’s Comet:

    • Periodicity: It is one of the most famous periodic comets, visible from Earth approximately once every 76 years.
    • Behind its name: It is named after the English astronomer Edmond Halley, who correctly predicted its return in 1758 using Newton’s laws of motion.
    • Early observations: The comet has been recorded by observers around the world for over 2,000 years, including in Babylonian, Chinese, and mediaeval European sources.
    • Latest appearance: Halley’s Comet last appeared in 1986 and is expected to return in 2061.
    • Visibility: It is visible to the naked eye and appears as a bright streak of light with a glowing tail, caused by solar radiation vaporising its icy surface.
    • Significance: Its 1456 CE appearance was especially bright and visible across Europe and Asia, and now, for the first time, it has been identified in an Indian epigraphical record.
    [UPSC 2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

    1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.

    2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.

    3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Sowa-Rigpa Traditional Medicine

    Why in the News?

    A one-day Samyoga event was organised today at the National Institute of Sowa-Rigpa (NISR), Leh, with the participation of experts from 10 states of India.

    About Sowa-Rigpa:

    • Overview: Sowa-Rigpa, also known as Traditional Tibetan Medicine or the Amchi system, is among the oldest continuously practised medical systems in the world.
    • Origin: The term comes from the Bhoti language, meaning “knowledge of healing”, and dates back over 2,000 years.
    • Historical Development: It was codified in the 8th century CE during King Trisong Detsen’s reign and further developed in the 12th century.
    • Foundational Text: The Gyud-Zi (4 Tantras) integrates ideas from Ayurveda, Chinese medicine, Greek traditions, and Bon and Buddhist philosophy.
    • Global Presence: Sowa-Rigpa is practiced in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, Nepal, and parts of Russia and China.
    • Indian Regions: In India, it is common in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh (Lahaul & Spiti), Jammu & Kashmir, and Darjeeling.
    • Core Beliefs: The system promotes disease prevention, longevity, and holistic mind-body well-being, viewing the body as a microcosm of nature in harmony with the environment.

    Diagnosis and Treatment:

    • Diagnostic Methods: Practitioners use pulse analysis, urine analysis, and detailed observation including case history.
    • Therapies Used: Treatments include diet and lifestyle adjustments, herbal medicines, Kunyé massage, moxibustion, acupuncture, and spiritual healing.
    • Ayurvedic Influence: About 75% of its theoretical base is derived from Ayurveda, especially the Ashtanga Hridaya.
    • Common Herbs: Shared medicinal herbs include Ashwagandha, Triphala, and Guggulu.

    Education and Recognition:

    • Traditional Training: Knowledge was historically passed through oral traditions, via guru-shishya parampara or family lineages.
    • Modern Institutions: The Central Council for Tibetan Medicine oversees education and practice standards.
    • National Institute: The National Institute of Sowa-Rigpa (NISR) in Leh leads in education, research, and policy implementation.
    • Government Recognition: Sowa-Rigpa has been officially recognised under AYUSH systems in India since 2010 and is promoted in multiple Himalayan states.
    [UPSC 2019] Recently, there was a growing awareness in our country about the importance of Himalayan nettle (Girardinia diversifolia) because it is found to be a sustainable source of:

    Options: (a) anti-malarial drug* (b) biodiesel (c) pulp for paper industry (d) textile fibre

     

  • Poson Poya festival in Sri Lanka

    Why in the News?

    Sri Lanka is celebrating Poson Poya festival which commemorates the arrival of Buddhism over 2,000 years ago.

    About Poson Poya Festival:

    • Overview: Poson Poya is the second most important Buddhist festival in Sri Lanka, following Vesak in religious significance.
    • Date of Observance: It is celebrated on the full moon day of June, which corresponds to the seventh month of the Sinhalese calendar.
    • Historical Commemoration: The festival marks the arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in 236 BCE, when Arahat Mahinda, son of Emperor Ashoka, met King Devanampiyatissa at Mihintale.
    • Key Locations: Celebrations are held across the island, with the most sacred observances taking place at Mihintale and Anuradhapura.
    • Ritual Activities: Devotees engage in temple visits, meditation, offerings, and acts of charity (Dana) as part of spiritual practice.
    • Cultural Expressions: Communities organize free food stalls (Dansalas), decorate homes and streets with lanterns, and display illuminated panels of Buddhist stories.

    How did Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka?

    • Following the Third Buddhist Council (held in 250 BC in Pataliputra) during Ashoka’s reign, it was decided to send missionaries to various regions, including Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
    • The mission to Sri Lanka was led by Mahinda (Mahendra), Ashoka’s son, who converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to Buddhism.
    • After several royal ladies expressed interest in joining the Buddhist monastic order, Mahinda sent for his sister, Sanghamitra, to initiate them.
      • Both siblings lived in Anuradhapura for the rest of their lives.
    • She played a pivotal role in establishing the Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha or Meheini Sasna) in Sri Lanka, which later spread to other Theravada Buddhist countries like Burma, China, and Thailand.
    [UPSC 2024] Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk, who travelled to China at the end of the fourth century AD, was the author of a commentary on:

    Options: (a) Prajnaparamita Sutra (b) Visuddhimagga (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya * (d) Lalitavistra