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Subject: Bilateral Relations

1. Major World Events
2. India’s Interests in neighbourhood
3. Effects of our Policies

  • PM Modi’s Visit to Ethiopia & Adwa Victory Monument

    Why in the news? 

    • Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid a wreath at the Adwa Victory Monument in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia during his official visit in December 2025.

    Battle of Adwa (1896)  

    • Year: 1896
    • Between:
      • Ethiopian forces
      • Italian colonial army
    • Outcome:
      • Decisive Ethiopian victory
      • Ethiopia retained its sovereignty and independence
    • Historical Significance:
      • Symbol of African resistance to colonialism
      • One of the few instances where an African nation defeated a European colonial power during the Scramble for Africa

    Diplomatic & Strategic Significance

    • Reinforces India–Africa relations
    • Strengthens India–Ethiopia strategic partnership
    • Reflects India’s support for:
      • Sovereignty
      • Anti-colonial legacy
      • South–South cooperation

    Honour Conferred

    • PM Modi was awarded Ethiopia’s highest civilian honour:
      • Great Honour Nishan of Ethiopia
    (2023) Consider the following pairs: Area of conflict mentioned in news : Country where it is located 1. Donbas : Syria 

    2. Kachin : Ethiopia 

    3. Tigray : North Yemen 

    How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

  • India–U.A.E. Joint Military Exercise Desert Cyclone II

    Why in the news?

    • An Indian Army contingent departed for the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) to participate in the 2nd edition of the joint military exercise “Desert Cyclone II”.
    • The exercise is being conducted at Abu Dhabi from December 18–30, 2025.

    Key Facts for Prelims

    • Name of Exercise: Desert Cyclone II
    • Edition: Second
    • Participating Countries:
      • India
      • United Arab Emirates
    • Location: Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
    • Duration: December 18–30, 2025

    Objectives of the Exercise

    • Enhance interoperability between Indian Army and U.A.E. Land Forces
    • Strengthen bilateral defence cooperation
    • Improve joint operational capabilities under a United Nations mandate
    Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct? (2024)

    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh. 

    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune). 

    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation. 

    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise. 

    Select the answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

  • [17th December 2025] The Hindu OpED: The three revolutions shaping American power: 2025 U.S. National Security Stratergy

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] “What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, Which would satisfy India’s National self- esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.

    Linkage: The question addresses power asymmetries and strategic hierarchy in India-U.S. relations, a recurring theme in GS II (International Relations). The article shows how the new U.S. National Security Strategy’s conditional and transactional approach prevents India from securing an equal strategic position, sustaining friction in bilateral ties.

    Introduction

    The 2025 U.S. National Security Strategy represents a decisive departure from the post-1945 American approach to global leadership. Rather than reforming existing multilateral institutions, the strategy reframes governance, alliances, and economic interdependence as instruments of leverage. The NSS reveals a deeper transformation in American statecraft, one that normalises harm, conditionality, and coercion as legitimate tools of power. These changes are best understood through three interlinked revolutions reshaping American power.

    Project 2025

    Meaning: Project 2025 is a conservative policy blueprint prepared by the Heritage Foundation and allied think tanks to restructure the U.S. federal state if Republicans return to power.

    Core Features:

    1. Executive Centralisation: Concentrates power in the President by weakening independent agencies and bureaucratic autonomy.
    2. Ideological Governance: Aligns administration, law enforcement, and regulatory bodies with conservative social and political values.
    3. Administrative Overhaul: Replaces career civil servants with politically aligned appointees to ensure policy compliance.
    4. Domestic Security Framing: Treats migration, culture, and social cohesion as national security issues.

    Significance: Project 2025 provides the domestic ideological foundation for the new U.S. National Security Strategy by redefining governance as an instrument of power rather than restraint.

    New U.S. National Security Strategy (2025)

    Meaning: The 2025 U.S. National Security Strategy outlines Washington’s approach to global power, prioritising great-power competition, economic leverage, and conditional alliances.

    Key Shifts:

    1. From Multilateralism to Conditionality: Replaces rule-based cooperation with transactional partnerships.
    2. China-Centric Strategy: Frames China as the primary systemic challenger across economic, military, and technological domains.
    3. Economic Statecraft: Uses trade, sanctions, supply chains, and finance as strategic tools.
    4. Alliance Recalibration: Reduces automatic commitments; demands burden-sharing and ideological alignment.
    5. Indo-Pacific Priority: Elevates the region while relatively downgrading Europe.

    Significance: The NSS signals a structural shift from liberal internationalism to hierarchical global governance, with direct implications for India, the Global South, and multilateral institutions.

    Political Revolution: Shrinking Civic Space as Statecraft

    Core Transformation

    1. Political Morality: Replaces institutional restraint with instrumental governance, where harm is treated as a policy design feature rather than an unintended consequence.
    2. Civic Norms: Weakens norms of accountability, public reason, and institutional deference.
    3. Cultural Governance: Treats internal cohesion, ideological alignment, and demographic stability as national security assets.

    Institutional Outcomes

    1. Executive Centralisation: Consolidates authority by reducing the autonomy of independent institutions.
    2. Administrative Hardship: Integrates regulatory punishment, purges, and compliance costs into routine governance.
    3. Ideological Statecraft: Reframes pluralism and dissent as vulnerabilities rather than democratic strengths.

    Foreign Policy Revolution: Conditionality Replacing Predictability

    Strategic Reorientation

    1. Alliance Retrenchment: Replaces automatic security guarantees with conditional, transactional commitments.
    2. Geographic Reprioritisation: Downgrades Europe while re-centering the Indo-Pacific as the primary theatre.
    3. Migration Securitisation: Elevates migration from a social issue to a core national security threat.

    Operational Consequences

    1. Multilateral Erosion: Treats international institutions as constraints on sovereignty.
    2. Partner Selection: Prioritises ideological conformity and burden-sharing over shared norms.
    3. Strategic Fragmentation: Produces unstable alliances and reduces crisis predictability.

    Economic Revolution: From Integration to Leverage

    Structural Shift

    1. Globalisation Reframing: Treats economic interdependence as exposure rather than mutual benefit.
    2. Debt and Finance: Formalises the withdrawal from development-oriented global finance.
    3. Trade Instrumentalisation: Uses tariffs, sanctions, and supply chain controls as coercive tools.

    Systemic Effects

    1. Unequal Distribution: Concentrates economic disruption on weaker states and peripheral economies.
    2. Supply Chain Reconfiguration: Promotes diversification aligned with geopolitical loyalty.
    3. Domestic Shielding: Absorbs inflationary and export shocks internally while externalising costs.

    The Return of Imperial Logic in Global Governance

    Underlying Continuity

    1. Hierarchical Order: Restores a world system based on power asymmetry rather than rule-based equality.
    2. Entitlement Framework: Normalises the strong imposing costs while the weak absorb disruption.
    3. Territorial Minimalism: Exercises influence without formal empire through economic and institutional control.

    Conceptual Innovation

    1. Architecture of Cruelty: Integrates suffering into governance logic, rendering harm politically invisible and administratively routine.
    2. Bureaucratic Normalisation: Converts coercion into technical procedure rather than overt domination.

    Conclusion

    The 2025 U.S. National Security Strategy marks a structural redefinition of American power. Through political centralisation, alliance conditionality, and economic coercion, the strategy abandons the stabilising logic of liberal internationalism. The three revolutions together signal a return to hierarchical global governance, where power is exercised through managed disruption rather than shared rules. The consequences are global, systemic, and enduring.

  • [16th December 2025] The Hindu OpED: The Oman visit is more than a routine diplomatic trip

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] “Energy security constitutes the dominant kingpin of India’s foreign policy, and is linked with India’s overarching influence in Middle Eastern countries.” How would you integrate energy security with India’s foreign policy trajectories in the coming years?

    Linkage: This question is directly relevant to GS-II as the India-Oman article demonstrates how energy security is institutionalised through strategic partnerships in West Asia. India-Oman cooperation in hydrocarbons, strategic petroleum storage, renewables, and maritime access at Duqm illustrates the integration of energy diplomacy with regional influence.

    Introduction

    The visit of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to Oman in December 2024 is not a routine diplomatic engagement. It coincides with 70 years of diplomatic relations and takes place amid heightened regional instability, energy transition pressures, and maritime security challenges in West Asia. Oman’s consistent neutrality, strategic geography, and expanding cooperation with India elevate this visit into a significant recalibration of India’s Gulf engagement.

    Why in the News?

    The December 17, 2024 visit marks 70 years of India-Oman diplomatic relations and follows closely after Sultan Haitham bin Tarik’s visit to India in December 2023. It consolidates Oman’s role as a balancing power in West Asia, distinct from polarized regional blocs. The visit builds on major milestones, India-Oman strategic partnership (2008), logistics agreement at Duqm (2018), and rising defence, trade, digital, and investment cooperation.

    India-Oman Relations: From Historical Ties to Strategic Convergence

    Historical Foundations and Political Trust

    1. Civilisational Linkages: Longstanding maritime and commercial exchanges rooted in the Indian Ocean trade network.
    2. Diplomatic Milestone: Completion of 70 years of formal diplomatic relations in 2024.
    3. Political Continuity: Reciprocal high-level visits, including the Sultan of Oman’s India visit in 2023.

    Oman as a Balancing Actor in West Asia

    1. Strategic Neutrality: Maintains relations across regional divides, including Iran, Gulf states, and Western powers.
    2. Conflict Mediation: Pursues moderation, dialogue, and neutrality as foreign policy pillars.
    3. India’s Advantage: Enables stable engagement unaffected by regional rivalries.

    Strategic Significance of Oman for India

    1. Maritime Gateway: Oman’s location at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz provides India secure access to critical Sea Lines of Communication linking the Persian Gulf with the Indian Ocean.
    2. Defence Logistics Anchor: Access to Duqm Port enables Indian naval deployment, maintenance, and logistical support beyond the Arabian Sea, strengthening India’s western Indian Ocean posture.
    3. Energy Security Partner: Oman supports India’s energy strategy through hydrocarbons cooperation, strategic petroleum storage arrangements, and collaboration in renewable energy.
    4. Balancing Power in West Asia: Oman’s policy of strategic neutrality allows India to engage the Gulf region without entanglement in regional rivalries.
    5. Economic Bridge: Stable investment platforms such as the Oman-India Joint Investment Fund deepen long-term economic and infrastructure linkages.

    Defence and Security Cooperation as a Strategic Pillar

    Military Cooperation and Access

    1. Institutional Framework: Defence cooperation agreement signed in 2005.
    2. Joint Exercises: Regular tri-service exercises, including naval, air, and ground components.
    3. Overflight and Transit Access: Enables Indian military logistics and rapid mobility.

    Maritime Security and Indian Ocean Presence

    1. Duqm Port Agreement (2018): Provides logistical access for Indian naval vessels.
    2. Geostrategic Location: Overlooks the Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea.
    3. Security Impact: Facilitates monitoring of Chinese PLA Navy activity and safeguards Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs).

    Economic and Investment Engagement: Expanding the Second Pillar

    Trade and Investment Growth

    1. Bilateral Trade: Crossed USD 6.1 billion in FY 2024-25.
    2. FDI Inflows: Cumulative Omani investment in India exceeded USD 7.2 billion by March 2025.
    3. Growth Trend: Reflects steady expansion in energy, logistics, and manufacturing.

    Joint Investment Platforms

    1. Oman-India Joint Investment Fund (OIJIF): Established in 2010.
    2. Investment Scale: Over USD 600 million invested in India, with USD 300 million announced in 2023.
    3. Sectoral Focus: Infrastructure, logistics, and strategic assets.

    Digital, Financial, and Emerging Technology Cooperation

    Fintech and Digital Public Infrastructure

    1. UPI-Oman Linkage: MoU signed in October 2022 between Oman’s Central Bank and NPCI.
    2. Digital Footprint: Oman becomes a key overseas partner in India’s DPI outreach.
    3. Outcome: Facilitates cross-border payments and financial inclusion

    Trade Facilitation and Economic Agreements

    1. CEPA Negotiations: India-Oman Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement under discussion.
    2. Trade Diversification: Reduces dependency on traditional energy imports.

    Energy Transition and Strategic Resources

    Hydrocarbons and Energy Security

    1. Strategic Petroleum Reserves: Oman holds renewable storage agreements with India.
    2. Energy Stability: Ensures supply security during global disruptions.

    Green Energy Cooperation

    1. Energy Transition: Collaboration in renewables and clean energy technologies.
    2. Long-term Alignment: Supports India’s climate and decarbonisation goals.

    Education, Health, and People-to-People Linkages

    Institutional Collaboration

    1. Higher Education: Potential establishment of IIT and IIM campuses in Oman.
    2. Health Cooperation: Expansion of medical education and healthcare partnerships.
    3. Human Capital: Strengthens India’s soft power and skill export footprint.

    Conclusion

    The India-Oman relationship is transitioning from traditional friendship to structured strategic partnership. Defence logistics, economic investment, digital connectivity, and energy security together position Oman as a cornerstone of India’s Gulf and Indian Ocean strategy. The visit sets new benchmarks for cooperation in a rapidly evolving regional order.

  • FTAs for a start: On India and trade pacts

    Introduction

    India has entered into 20 regional or free trade agreements, excluding the recently concluded pacts with the United Kingdom and European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Negotiations are ongoing with major economies including the United States, European Union, Canada, and the Southern African Customs Union. This renewed urgency is driven by U.S. tariffs of up to 50% on key Indian exports, underscoring the strategic importance of trade diversification. However, evidence from earlier FTAs reveals that market access without domestic preparedness has widened trade deficits rather than strengthened exports.

    Why in the News?

    India’s FTA strategy is at a critical inflection point. While the country is rapidly expanding its trade pact network and reconsidering engagement channels even with blocs like RCEP, outcomes from earlier agreements expose structural weaknesses. Trade deficits with ASEAN widened from $10 billion (2017) to nearly $44 billion (2023), and similar trends are visible with Japan and South Korea, despite rising exports. 

    India’s Expanding FTA Landscape

    1. FTA Coverage: Enters 20 FTAs; recent additions include the UK and EFTA agreements.
    2. Negotiation Momentum: Accelerates talks with the U.S., EU, Canada, and SACU.
    3. Strategic Trigger: Responds to steep U.S. tariff escalation on Indian exports.
    4. RCEP Positioning: Maintains non-accession while exploring consultative channels.

    Trade Imbalances from Earlier FTAs

    1. ASEAN Trade Deficit: Expands from ~$10 billion (2017) to ~$44 billion (2023).
    2. Japan and Korea Pattern: Imports of high-value, capital-intensive goods outpace export growth.
    3. Structural Asymmetry: Export basket remains less competitive against partner economies.

    Negotiation and Design Deficiencies

    1. Standards Alignment Gaps: Weak mutual recognition on quality standards and certifications.
    2. Rules of Origin Weakness: Allows import surge without commensurate domestic value addition.
    3. Non-Tariff Barriers: Insufficiently addressed despite tariff liberalisation.
    4. Sectoral Misalignment: FTAs not tailored to India’s comparative sectoral strengths.
    5. Industry Consultation Deficit: Limited engagement with exporters during negotiations.

    Implementation and Domestic Uptake Failures

    1. Low Utilisation Rates: Indian exporters fail to exploit preferential margins.
    2. Domestic Awareness Gaps: Government does not adequately popularise FTAs among industry.
    3. Partner Advantage: Counterpart economies utilise preferences more effectively.

    Course Correction through Recent Agreements

    1. Review Mechanism: Reassessment of ASEAN, Japan, and Korea FTAs initiates correction.
    2. India-UAE CEPA Outcome: Achieves balanced trade expansion; non-oil trade touches ~$100 billion in FY25.
    3. Learning Curve: Demonstrates value of calibrated concessions and sector-specific focus.

    Strategic Priorities in Ongoing Negotiations

    1. United States Engagement: Requires structured consultations with services, seafood, engineering goods, and textile exporters.
    2. European Union Talks: Demands focus on carbon-intensive sectors like iron, steel, and cement.
    3. CBAM Challenge: Trade terms must factor the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.

    Beyond Agreements: The Export Support Imperative

    1. Standards Infrastructure: Strengthens quality, certification, and testing ecosystems.
    2. Trade Infrastructure: Improves logistics and supply-chain efficiency.
    3. Technology Upgradation: Enables competitiveness in global value chains.
    4. Market Intelligence: Supports exporters with real-time demand and compliance data.

    Conclusion

    Free trade agreements can only serve as an entry point, not a substitute, for export competitiveness. India’s experience with earlier FTAs shows that tariff liberalisation without adequate attention to standards, rules of origin, sectoral strengths and domestic capacity leads to widening trade deficits rather than sustained gains. The relatively balanced outcomes under recent agreements underline the importance of better-designed negotiations and continuous review. As India advances talks with major economies, the real test will lie beyond signing pacts; in systematically supporting exporters through quality infrastructure, technology upgradation and market intelligence so that market access translates into durable trade outcomes.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] Account for the failure of the manufacturing sector in achieving the goal of labor-intensive exports. Suggest measures for more labor-intensive rather than capital – intensive exports.

    Linkage: This PYQ directly aligns with the article’s core argument that FTAs without domestic productive capacity and sectoral competitiveness lead to import surges rather than export expansion.

  • Why India is not ‘dumping’ rice in the US as Trump says

    Introduction

    The claim that India is “dumping” rice in the US market has resurfaced amid renewed India-US trade negotiations. However, trade data, export composition, and tariff structures indicate that India’s rice exports to the US are neither large in volume nor price-distorting. The issue assumes significance as it intersects with US protectionism, agricultural trade sensitivities, and India’s broader export strategy.

    Nature of the Allegation and Its Context

    1. Political Assertion: The allegation of rice dumping was raised by US President Donald Trump while justifying potential tariff actions against Indian exports.
    2. Negotiation Backdrop: The statement coincides with the restart of India-US trade talks involving the US Trade Representative and India’s chief negotiator.
    3. Trade Sensitivity: Agricultural trade remains among the most politically sensitive sectors in US trade policy.

    Scale of India’s Rice Exports to the US

    1. Limited Export Share: The US accounts for a marginal share of India’s rice exports.
    2. Export Value: India exported rice worth $337.1 million to the US in 2024-25.
    3. Global Comparison: Major destinations include Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Yemen, and African countries, all importing far larger volumes than the US.
    4. Import Dependence: The US is not a major rice producer but exports more rice than it imports.

    Composition of Exports and Price Dynamics

    1. Premium Product Profile: India’s exports to the US are dominated by basmati rice, a high-value, niche product.
    2. Price Differential: Basmati rice exported to the US is priced at $900-1,125 per tonne, compared to $700-800 per tonne for non-basmati.
    3. Market Positioning: Such pricing negates the economic logic of dumping, which requires below-cost sales.
    4. Consumer Segment: Exports cater primarily to ethnic and gourmet markets rather than mass consumption.

    Non-Basmati Exports and Market Structure

    1. Negligible Share: Non-basmati rice exports to the US are minimal, accounting for a small fraction of total exports.
    2. Primary Markets: Africa and parts of Asia dominate India’s non-basmati rice trade.
    3. Trade Pattern: Countries such as Benin, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Bangladesh import substantially larger volumes.

    Tariff Structure and Impact on Indian Exports

    1. Existing Tariffs: Indian rice already faces US tariffs, limiting competitiveness.
    2. Potential Tariff Hike: Trump has reiterated the possibility of imposing additional tariffs across sectors.
    3. Marginal Impact: Analysts predict note that tariffs may not significantly affect rice exports due to their niche positioning.
    4. Trade Balance Shift: India’s trade surplus with the US has declined from $35.7 billion (FY23) to $31.7 billion (FY25).

    Broader Trade Negotiations and Strategic Signals

    1. Negotiation Progress: Both sides expect a breakthrough due to sustained engagement.
    2. Strategic Context: The trade talks are also shaped by US efforts to rebalance supply chains and counter China.
    3. Indian Leverage: India’s diversified export basket and regulated agricultural exports strengthen its negotiating position.

    Conclusion

    The allegation of rice dumping lacks empirical support when examined against export volumes, pricing structures, and product composition. India’s rice exports to the US are limited, premium-priced, and non-disruptive. The issue reflects broader protectionist pressures rather than a genuine trade distortion, underscoring the importance of data-driven engagement in India-US trade negotiations.

    Rice in India: Key Value-Addition Statistics 

    Area, Production and Yield

    1. Area under rice: ~ 44 million hectares, about 23-24% of India’s gross cropped area.
    2. Production: ~ 135-138 million tonnes (record levels in recent years).
    3. Yield: ~ 3.9-4.1 tonnes per hectare, lower than China but improving due to HYVs and irrigation.
    4. Seasonal spread: Dominantly kharif crop, with rabi rice significant in eastern and southern India.

    Basmati vs Non-Basmati Rice

    • Basmati rice:
    • Area: ~ 1.5-1.6 million hectares
    • Share in production: ~ 4-5%
    • Share in export value: 25-30% (premium pricing)
    • Price: Significantly higher than non-basmati
    • Non-basmati rice:
    • Area: ~ 42 million hectares
    • Backbone of domestic food security
    • Accounts for bulk of export volume, especially to Africa and Asia

    Major Rice-Producing States

    1. West Bengal: largest producer
    2. Uttar Pradesh: second largest
    3. Punjab: high productivity; major surplus state
    4. Andhra Pradesh & Telangana: export-oriented surplus
    5. Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Assam: major contributors.
    6. Basmati-specific states: Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, parts of J&K.

    Rice in India’s Agricultural Trade

    • Rice = India’s single largest agri export commodity by value.
    1. Basmati exports: High-value, niche, quality-driven.
    2. Non-basmati exports: Volume-driven, price-competitive.
    3. Policy role: Central to debates on MSP, food security, buffer stocks, and WTO subsidy limits.

    UPSC-Relevant Analytical Points

    1. Food security vs exports: Non-basmati supports PDS and buffer stock; basmati supports farmer income and forex.
    2. WTO relevance: Rice is central to India’s public stockholding and subsidy notifications under AoA.
    3. Environmental concern: Rice cultivation linked to groundwater depletion and stubble burning in north-west India.
    4. Strategic leverage: Dominance in global rice trade gives India bargaining power but invites protectionist scrutiny.

    WTO Dispute & Legal Hooks

    1. WTO angle: India’s farm subsidies (especially MSP + public stockholding for rice & wheat) have been repeatedly challenged through US “counter-notifications” at the WTO, alleging India breaches the 10% de-minimis limit for product-specific support under the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA, Article 6). 
    2. Peace clause use: India itself notified breaching the rice subsidy cap in 2018–19 and invoked the Bali “peace clause” on public stockholding for food security, shielding it (temporarily) from legal action even if limits are crossed. 
    3. Related dispute: A 2018 WTO case on India’s sugar and sugarcane support saw a panel ruling (2021) that parts of India’s domestic support violated AoA rules; India appealed into the non-functional Appellate Body, so the case remains unresolved.

    India-US Trade Share (Official Source)

    1. Overall trade: As per USTR (official US data), total US–India goods and services trade was about $212.3 bn in 2024, with goods trade at $128.9 bn (US exports $41.5 bn; imports from India $87.3 bn).
    2. Agriculture slice: A recent brief on India–US agricultural trade notes India’s agri exports to the US are about $5.7 bn annually, a small share of both India’s total exports and overall bilateral trade.

    UPSC RELEVANCE

    [UPSC 2021] What are the direct and indirect subsidies provided to farm sector in India? Discuss the issues raised by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in relation to agricultural subsidies.

    Linkage: It is relevant to GS Paper III as WTO concerns over farm subsidies underpin dumping allegations against India, including in rice trade with the US. It helps assess whether export competitiveness is subsidy-driven or market-based.

  • Operation Sagar Bandhu

    Why in the news

    The Indian Navy has deployed four more warships carrying 1000 tons of Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief stores to cyclone hit regions of Sri Lanka under Operation Sagar Bandhu.

    About the Operation

    • An ongoing Indian Navy initiative to provide urgent assistance to Sri Lanka in the aftermath of a severe cyclone.
       • Focus includes Search and Rescue and supply of essential relief material.

    Indian Ocean Region Significance

    • Reinforces India’s role as a reliable first responder in the region.
       • Strengthens India Sri Lanka people level relations.
       • Showcases India’s naval capability in disaster response and logistics.

    Associated Vision

    • Aligned with India’s commitment to Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) and cooperative maritime outreach in the Indian Ocean Region.
    Consider the following pairs: Country – Important reason for being in the news recently (2022)

    1. Chad — Setting up of permanent military base by China 

    2. Guinea — Suspension of Constitution and Government by military 

    3. Lebanon — Severe and prolonged economic depression 

    4. Tunisia — Suspension of Parliament by President 

    How many pairs given above are correctly matched? 

    (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs

  • Putin’s visit: The long arc of India’s ties with Russia, the road ahead

    Introduction

    India-Russia relations have historically been marked by defence cooperation, political trust, and strategic convergence. However, the global context surrounding President Putin’s December 2024 visit, his first after the Ukraine conflict, has introduced new complexities. India now navigates sanctions pressure, energy dependencies, defence shortfalls, and the need to sustain balanced relations with both the West and Russia.

    Why in the News? 

    President Vladimir Putin’s visit to India on 4-5 December for the 23rd Annual Summit is significant as it is his first visit since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. This is a period marked by sanctions, slowed defence supplies, and shifting global alignments. India-Russia bilateral trade crossed $63.8 billion, but sanctions on Russian energy and secondary sanctions on Indian companies now threaten the $100-billion trade target.

    The Evolution of India-Russia Strategic Ties

    1. Historical Convergence: New Delhi and Moscow shared close ties since the Soviet era, with Russia supporting India post-1998 sanctions.
    2. Defence Legacy: 60% of India’s defence inventory remains of Russian origin; legacy platforms need regular servicing and spares.
    3. Diversification Effort: India expanded its partnerships with the US, Europe, and others for technology, security, and economic needs.
    4. Stable Political Understanding: Leadership-level engagement remained consistent, even during geopolitical disruptions.

    Why Defence Remains the Core Pillar

    1. Legacy Equipment: India still requires servicing and spares for Russian-origin systems; replacement is slow.
    2. S-400 Delivery Issues: Russia was expected to deliver five S-400 units, but deliveries slowed due to the Ukraine war.
    3. Sanctions Impact: Sanctions on Russia impaired its ability to manufacture cutting-edge defence systems, reducing India’s supply reliability.
    4. Strategic Risk: The disruption compelled India to diversify procurement to Western partners.

    How Have Economic and Energy Ties Changed?

    1. Discounted Oil Purchases: Post-Ukraine, India bought discounted Russian crude, helping control domestic fuel prices.
    2. Trade Surge: Bilateral trade increased from $6.87 billion (FY24) to $63.8 billion last year, driven by oil imports.
    3. Trade Imbalance: India’s imports massively exceed exports; Russia aims to boost Indian exports to reach $100 billion bilateral trade.
    4. Secondary Sanctions Risk: US sanctions forced Indian companies to exit Russian shipping and oil-related operations.

    What is Expected During the Upcoming Visit?

    1. Controlled Optics: No large-scale pageantry; Modi-Putin meeting likely private and focused.
    2. Limited Public Events: No public address or mass interactions expected.
    3. West’s Scrutiny: US and Europe closely monitor the visit given ongoing tensions over Ukraine.
    4. Agenda Items: Defence delivery timelines, energy cooperation, and trade balance to dominate.

    How is India Balancing Russia and the West?

    1. Eastern Partnership: Russia remains key for defence hardware and strategic autonomy.
    2. Western Engagement: India deepened cooperation with the US and Europe in technology, capital, and mobility corridors.
    3. Strategic Autonomy: India maintains multi-alignment, ensuring no relationship becomes exclusive.
    4. Domestic Aspiration: India seeks high-technology and economic opportunities for a modernising population.

    Conclusion

    India-Russia relations enter a phase of recalibration shaped by sanctions, defence supply constraints, and India’s deepening Western partnerships. Yet, the historical trust, defence legacy, and energy complementarity ensure that Russia remains relevant for India. The challenge lies in sustaining a realistic, interest-driven relationship while managing Western scrutiny and domestic strategic needs.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

    Linkage: The question reflects India’s growing shift from Russian to US defence partnerships discussed in the article. It connects these defence ties to India’s role in ensuring stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

  • [3rd December 2025] The Hindu OpED: A template for security cooperation in the Indian Ocean

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition?

    Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked to India’s strategic engagement with the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC), where Maldives is a core maritime partner. The question becomes relevant as Maldives’ political shifts, China’s growing presence, and competition over Indian Ocean trade and energy routes directly shape India’s maritime security priorities.

    Mentor’s Comment

    This article breaks down the evolving relevance of the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC) for India and the wider Indian Ocean region in 2025. China’s growing presence in the region is reshaping the geopolitical environment. In this setting, the CSC becomes an important platform for India to strengthen maritime security cooperation.

    Introduction

    The CSC has emerged as a critical framework for regional security cooperation in the Indian Ocean. It initially focused on issues such as maritime security, counter-terrorism, cybersecurity, and human trafficking. Now it is attempting to institutionalise itself and broaden its mandate to address the increasingly complex geopolitical and maritime challenges in the region. India’s leadership in reviving and expanding the grouping has placed CSC at the centre of its Indian Ocean strategy.

    How is the evolving Indian Ocean environment reshaping CSC’s relevance?

    1. Strategic Shifts: The Indian Ocean region is witnessing significant changes in the broader Indo-Pacific, making cooperative security frameworks more urgent.
    2. Economic Interdependence: Littoral states depend heavily on ocean-based economies; maritime disruptions create widespread developmental challenges.
    3. Non-traditional Threats: Issues such as organised crime, cyberattacks, and trafficking continue to expand, requiring coordinated regional responses.

    What has shaped the CSC’s institutional trajectory so far?

    1. Initial Trilateral Framework: Established between India, Sri Lanka and the Maldives; momentum slowed due to political transitions in Sri Lanka and Maldives.
    2. Revival in 2020: India reinstated its engagement, establishing structured cooperation across four pillars, maritime security, counter-terrorism, trafficking, and cybersecurity.
    3. Progressive Expansion: Mauritius joined as full member (2022); Bangladesh added in 2024; Malaysia joined as observer in 2025.
    4. Growing Synergies: NSA-level coordination has strengthened common frameworks across member states.

    Why does China’s growing presence create strategic dilemmas for CSC?

    1. Contrasting Perceptions:
      1. India: Views China’s activities as a major security challenge.
      2. Other Members: Depend on China economically and see it as a developmental partner rather than a threat.
    2. Need for Balance: India must carefully manage CSC’s agenda such that the grouping does not fracture over divergent China-related security views.
    3. Anchoring India’s Priorities: CSC allows India to place maritime security and regional stability at the centre of cooperative action.

    What institutional challenges does the CSC currently face?

    1. Fragmented Frameworks: Lack of integrated institutional structures limits effective coordination.
    2. Need for Policy Consistency: Member states’ domestic disturbances (e.g., in Bangladesh) can affect the group’s resilience.
    3. Operational Limitations: Without an institutionalised Secretariat or joint mechanisms, coordination remains NSA-driven and episodic.

    What opportunities does CSC expansion create for regional security?

    1. Wider Membership: Growing membership allows for more inclusive maritime-security cooperation in the Indian Ocean.
    2. Enhanced Information-Sharing: Expanding partnerships help create common threat-perception frameworks.
    3. Forward Momentum: Malaysia’s possible future membership indicates sustained interest in CSC’s work
    4. Aligning Actionable Pathways: Collective policies on maritime issues can strengthen resilience across the region.

    Conclusion

    The CSC stands at a defining moment in 2025. Its expansion, renewed momentum, and India’s leadership provide a framework to address the growing complexity of maritime security in the Indian Ocean. However, institutional strengthening, policy coherence, and careful handling of China-related sensitivities will determine how successfully the CSC evolves into a reliable, long-term regional security architecture.

  • Return of the G2: Trump, China and the mirage of a bipolar world

    INTRODUCTION

    The reference to a “G2” resurfaced when US President Trump publicly announced that “The G2 will be convening shortly,” signalling a possible US-China duopoly in global decision-making. The Trump-Xi Busan meeting revived an older idea first articulated by economist C. Fred Bergsten in 2005. However, despite dramatic optics, the summit lacked institutional depth and showcased a transactional, spectacle-driven diplomatic approach. The renewed G2 talk generated global unease, especially among allies and emerging economies, given the risks of marginalisation and disruption of regional balances in the Indo-Pacific.

    WHY IN THE NEWS 

    Trump’s declaration that the US and China would meet as a “G2” revived the idea of a US-China duopoly at a moment of systemic geopolitical flux. The Busan meeting created significant global debate because, despite high-profile optics and selective trade concessions (soybean purchases, tariff relief, fentanyl cooperation), there were no structural commitments or conflict-management mechanisms. The sudden bypassing of broader multilateral processes unsettled allies and intensified concerns of shrinking strategic space for countries like India, especially amid shifting economic projections that show a long-term move toward a tripolar world rather than a bipolar G2.

    G2 Revival: What Does the Busan Moment Signify?

    1. Performative Diplomacy: Trump framed the meeting as a G2 encounter, signalling a claim to architect a new global order driven by bilateral spectacle rather than institutional negotiations.
    2. Transactional Bargains: China resumed US soybean imports; the US eased select tariffs and technology restrictions; cooperation was pledged on fentanyl precursors and rare-earth supply chains.
    3. Absence of Structure: No new institutions, principles, or crisis-management mechanisms were created, making the meeting high on optics but low on structural impact.

    China’s Strategic Calculus Behind the G2 Optics

    1. Symbolic Parity: Great-power parity aligns with China’s long-term ambition for equal status with the US, enhancing its global narrative.
    2. Economic Off-ramp: Tariff relief and tech flexibility help stabilise China’s domestic economy amid headwinds such as overcapacity and slowing productivity.
    3. Controlled Ambiguity: China avoided endorsing a formal duopoly, using strategic ambiguity to retain flexibility while cultivating Global South networks.

    Structural Fragility of a US-China Duopoly

    1. Deep Bilateral Contradictions: Taiwan, technology dependence, and military rivalry create structural barriers to stable cooperation.
    2. Lack of Institutional Grounding: No formal mechanisms exist to manage disputes or align long-term strategic objectives.
    3. Risk to Alliances: The G2 idea signals that alliances are expendable, undermining confidence among US partners in Asia and Europe.

    Global Implications of the G2 Notion

    1. Destabilising for Allies: Japan, South Korea, Australia fear erosion of regional balance if the US deprioritises alliances.
    2. Institutional Marginalisation: G2 bypasses multilateral institutions, weakening global governance frameworks.
    3. Supply-Chain Reconfiguration: A US-China bilateral alignment could redirect global supply chains, adversely affecting Indo-Pacific economies.

    Why the G2 Idea Alarms India

    1. Risk of Strategic Sidelining: A bilateral shortcut between the US and China may marginalise India despite its rising economic weight.
    2. Supply Chain Dependence: India’s dependence on Chinese imports (electronics, APIs, critical minerals) becomes more vulnerable.
    3. Quad Uncertainty: A possible thaw between the US and China creates ambiguity around the Indo-Pacific strategy and Quad commitments.
    4. Manufacturing Disadvantage: Reduced US pressure on China undercuts India’s ambition to position itself as a credible alternative manufacturing hub.

    Long-term Trend: A Tripolar, Not Bipolar, World

    1. Economic Projections: PwC and Goldman Sachs project by 2050 a tripolar structure: China (1st), India (2nd), US (3rd) in PPP terms.
    2. Limits on China’s Rise: Demographic contraction and industrial overcapacity constrain China’s long-term dominance.
    3. India’s Structural Advantages: Young workforce, expanding market, tech ambitions support India’s rise as a major economic pole.
    4. US Position: Innovation strength persists, but political polarisation and ageing demographics slow future growth.

    CONCLUSION

    Trump’s revival of the G2 is more spectacle than substance, reflecting a transitional phase rather than a durable geopolitical redesign. Structural contradictions, alliance concerns, and global economic shifts limit the feasibility of a US-China duopoly. The long-term trajectory points to broader multipolarity, with India emerging as a critical pole in global politics. The Busan moment thus underscores the instability of great-power bargains that bypass wider global participation and institutional frameworks.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.

    Linkage: The PYQ statement directly connects to intensifying US-China strategic rivalry, which shapes the global balance of power, technology races, and Indo-Pacific security dynamics. It is highly relevant for GS-II (IR) as it influences India’s strategic space, Quad calculus, supply-chain realignments, and the emerging multipolar world order.