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Subject: Disaster Management

  • How we are rescuing workers trapped in Uttarkashi tunnel

    Uttarakhand tunnel collapse LIVE: Pipeline laid inside to rescue 41 trapped workers | Hindustan Times

    Central idea

    The central idea focuses on the Silkyara Tunnel rescue in Uttarakhand, highlighting diverse worker representation and challenges in Himalayan geology. The strategic use of auger and drift technology plays a crucial role in the efficient rescue operation. The primary goal is the safe return of 41 trapped workers through a unified and adaptive approach.

    Key Highlights:

    • Silkyara Tunnel incident in Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand, sparks a coordinated effort by government and private agencies.
    • 41 workers trapped in a partially collapsed tunnel, representing a diverse group from different states.
    • Technological advancements, communication, and transportation are leveraged for the rescue operation.
    • Involvement of multiple government bodies, including the Prime Minister’s Office and various ministries.

    Key Challenges:

    • Risks and challenges associated with the rescue operation, including the unpredictable nature of Himalayan geology.
    • The need to balance urgency with caution in the rescue efforts.
    • Varying degrees of difficulty in deploying machinery due to the risk factor and geological complexities.

    Key Terms and Phrases for value addition:

    • Silkyara Tunnel
    • “All of government” approach
    • Himalayan geology
    • Simultaneity principle
    • Auger technology
    • Drift technology
    • Convergence of capability

    Auger Technology:

    • Definition: Auger technology involves the use of a rotating metal shaft with a blade at the end.
    • Application in Rescue: In the Silkyara Tunnel rescue, auger technology is deployed to scrape or cut debris and earth, creating a path for rescuers.
    • Success: A portion of 22 meters has been successfully negotiated, demonstrating the effectiveness of auger technology.
    • Challenges: Geological impediments have posed challenges, requiring restarting the effort.

    Drift Technology:

    • Definition: Drift technology involves scraping the sides of the tunnel to increase its size and create access.
    • Application in Rescue: Used to widen the tunnel for easier access and maneuverability in the rescue operation.
    • Timing: Top and side boring attacks on the tunnel alignment will commence in due course.
    • Redundancy: Provides a redundant approach to ensure the success of the rescue operation.

    Key Facts and Data:

    • 41 workers trapped inside a partially collapsed tunnel.
    • Efforts initiated by the Prime Minister’s Office, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Ministry of Home Affairs, NDMA, and Uttarakhand SDMA.
    • Five rescue approaches with time frames ranging from five-six days to eight weeks.

    Critical Analysis:

    • Emphasis on the coordinated efforts involving various government bodies and private sectors.
    • Recognition of the unpredictable nature of Himalayan geology and the associated challenges.
    • Utilization of advanced technologies such as auger and drift technology to address the complexities.
    • Highlighting the psychological and social impacts on workers and the provision of psycho-social specialists.
    • Acknowledgment of the importance of enabling convergence of capability among competent agencies.

    Way Forward:

    • Continued focus on simultaneous approaches to expedite the rescue operation.
    • Prioritizing the horizontal approach using auger technology and drift technology.
    • Recognition of leadership from New Delhi as a crucial factor in ensuring effective coordination.
    • Emphasizing the importance of the safe return of the trapped workers as the primary goal.

  • Cancer, heart disease, diabetes – odd-even scheme is not the answer to pollution woes

    One Health approach

    Central idea

    The article delves into the alarming air pollution crisis in Delhi and the National Capital Region, highlighting global and local concerns. It emphasizes the health impact of air pollution, particularly on vulnerable groups like children, and evaluates India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) and potential strategies for effective air quality management.

    Key Highlights:

    • Air Quality Crisis: Delhi and the National Capital Region face a severe air pollution crisis, with the Air Quality Index (AQI) touching 500, prompting various restrictions and interventions.
    • Global Air Pollution Concerns: Air pollution is a global issue, affecting low- and middle-income countries the most. The World Health Assembly Resolution 68.8 emphasizes addressing the health impact of air pollution, highlighting its role in millions of global deaths.
    • India’s Efforts: The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) launched in 2019 aims to reduce PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations by 20-30% by 2024 through diverse interventions targeting vehicular pollution, industrial emissions, waste management, and more.
    Let’s revise for prelims

     

    India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

     

    Ministry Under Which NCAP Operates: Operated under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).

     

    Establishment and Jurisdiction: Launched in 2019 to address air pollution and improve air quality. Encompasses various interventions to reduce pollution levels.

     

    Objective: Aims to achieve a 20-30% reduction in concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 by 2024 (base year, 2017).

     

    Key Components: Focuses on reducing vehicular pollution through regulatory norms. Promotes public transport and enhances infrastructure. Addresses industrial emissions, waste management, and stubble burning.

     

    Legal Framework: Aligned with existing environmental laws and regulations. Operates within the framework of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

    Challenges:

    • Health Impact: Air pollution, laden with pollutants like PM2.5, leads to severe health consequences, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, respiratory issues, and neurological disorders.
    • Vulnerability of Children: Children are particularly vulnerable due to developing lungs, higher exposure, and increased susceptibility to neurotoxic compounds, leading to various health issues.
    • Social Gradient in Exposure: Studies indicate that air pollution often exhibits a social gradient, impacting marginalized communities more, challenging the notion that it affects everyone equally.

    Key Phrases:

    • Air Quality Index (AQI): Measures air pollution levels, categorized into ranges with associated health advisories. Delhi’s AQI touching 500 signifies hazardous air quality.
    • NCAP: India’s National Clean Air Programme, launched to combat air pollution, emphasizing reductions in PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations through diverse strategies.
    • One Health Approach: Recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, urging comprehensive actions to address the impact of land, air, and water use on well-being.

    Analysis:

    • Global Concerns: Nearly 90% of the global population breathes air exceeding prescribed pollution limits, with low- and middle-income countries facing the most significant impact.
    • NCAP Effectiveness: The NCAP outlines specific interventions to combat air pollution, but the effectiveness of measures like the odd-even scheme in Delhi is debated, with studies showing mixed results.

    Key Data:

    • Health Impact: Air pollution contributes to chronic diseases and cancer, with a third of deaths from major diseases linked to air pollution, rivaling the impact of smoking.
    • Global Scenario: Delhi ranked as the most polluted city globally in terms of fine particulate matter, emphasizing the urgent need for comprehensive air quality management.

    Way Forward:

    • Stringent Standards: Evolve more stringent air quality standards, considering the absence of safe thresholds, especially for particulates and ozone.
    • Airshed-Centric Approach: Transition from city-centric to airshed-centric air quality management, recognizing the local factors affecting pollutant dispersion.
    • Global Cooperation: Leverage international platforms like the G20 to address pollution in the context of climate action and promote a One Health approach globally.

    In essence, the article underscores the critical need for immediate and comprehensive measures to combat the escalating air pollution crisis, emphasizing the global and local impact on health and the environment.

  • Dam Safety Act 2021

    hydel dam safety

    Central Idea

    • India boasts nearly 6,000 large dams, but concerns loom over the safety of these structures, with approximately 80% of them being over 25 years old and posing safety risks.
    • With numerous large dams and hydropower projects, the Himalayas play a crucial role in meeting India’s energy needs.
    • However, the recent incident of a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in North Sikkim has raised alarm bells about the safety of these structures.

    Hydropower boom in the Himalayas

    • As of November 2022, the Himalayan states and Union territories, excluding West Bengal, had 81 large hydropower projects (above 25 MW) in operation, with 26 more under construction.
    • An additional 320 large projects are in the planning stages, according to the Central Electricity Authority under the Union Ministry of Power.

    Discussion: Dam Safety in the Himalayas

    • Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: The Himalayas are highly susceptible to natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, and GLOFs due to their complex geological and topographical features. These hazards can jeopardize the integrity of dams and reservoirs.
    • High Population Density: The Himalayan region is densely populated, with communities residing downstream of dams and hydropower projects. A dam failure can have devastating consequences on human lives and property.
    • Ecological Sensitivity: The Himalayas are an ecologically fragile region with unique biodiversity. A dam failure can lead to environmental disasters, impacting delicate ecosystems.

    Repercussions

    • Climate Change: The melting of glaciers due to global warming contributes to the formation of glacial lakes. As these lakes grow, the risk of GLOFs increases, putting downstream infrastructure at risk.
    • Snowball Effects: Landslide dams can lead to impounding of lakes, landslide-induced floods, secondary landslides, channel avulsion, and the formation of flood terraces downstream, impacting communities and infrastructure.
    • Delayed Impacts: Run-of-the-river projects, which often bypass large-scale displacement and forest diversion, have been promoted as environmentally friendly. However, their underground components can disturb geology and geohydrology, leading to indirect displacement and environmental impacts.
    • Aging Infrastructure: Many dams and hydropower projects in the Himalayas are aging, with approximately 80% of them over 25 years old. Proper maintenance and monitoring are essential to ensure their safety.

    Dam Safety Act, 2021 and its Provisions

    • The DSA was introduced in response to dam failures caused by deficient surveillance and maintenance.
    • It establishes key responsibilities and requires the formation of national and state-level bodies for its implementation.
    • The Act outlines the following provisions:
    1. National Committee on Dam Safety: Responsible for overseeing dam safety policies and regulations.
    2. National Dam Safety Authority: Tasked with implementing and resolving state-level disputes.
    3. Chairman of the Central Water Commission (CWC): Heads dam safety protocols at the national level.
    4. State Committee on Dam Safety (SCDS) and State Dam Safety Organisation (SDSO): To be established at the state level.

    Challenges in DSA Implementation

    • Inadequate Risk Assessment: Experts argue that the DSA does not encourage risk-based decision-making and lacks transparency incentives.
    • Transparency Concerns: Dam safety should be a public function, with information readily accessible. However, transparency is impeded when government employees and project engineers dominate national and state bodies, potentially compromising objective decision-making.

    Lessons Learned from Recent Incidents

    • Comprehensive Risk Assessment: Dam safety protocols must include comprehensive risk assessments that consider factors such as climate change, geological stability, and the potential for GLOFs. Periodic reviews yield updated inundation maps and rule curves for reservoir capacity.
    • Hazard Profiling Issues: Hazard risk is influenced by climate change, urbanization, and water usage patterns. Periodic reviews should yield updated inundation maps and rule curves for reservoir capacity. Unfortunately, these reviews are often overlooked or findings are not made publicly available.
    • Standardized Safety Evaluation: The DSA mandates comprehensive dam safety evaluations but lacks standardization in how failures are analyzed and reported.
    • Transparent Reporting: Transparency in dam safety is paramount. The DSA should be implemented rigorously, with an emphasis on transparent reporting of dam failures and safety assessments.
    • Community Involvement: Local communities should be actively engaged in dam safety measures. They can provide valuable insights into the environmental and social impacts of such projects.

    Way Forward

    • Early Warning Systems: Establishing advanced early warning systems that can detect GLOFs and other potential hazards is crucial. These systems can save lives and minimize damage.
    • Regular Maintenance: Aging infrastructure must undergo regular maintenance and upgrades to ensure their continued safety and functionality.
    • International Collaboration: Given the transboundary nature of the Himalayan region, international collaboration on dam safety and disaster management is essential. Neighboring countries should work together to mitigate shared risks.

  • Assistance to States during Natural Disasters: How It Works

    Central Idea

    • In the wake of natural disasters, states often request assistance from the central government.
    • Himachal Pradesh CM recently requested for a special disaster relief package and urged the designation of the calamity as a ‘national disaster.’

    Natural Disaster Mitigation in States

    • Legal Framework: The 2005 Disaster Management Act provides the legal framework for addressing disasters, whether natural or man-made.
    • Defining disaster: It defines a “disaster” as an event causing substantial loss of life, human suffering, property damage, or environmental degradation beyond the community’s coping capacity.
    • National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): The Act established the NDMA, headed by the Prime Minister, and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) led by Chief Ministers. These bodies, along with district-level authorities, form an integrated disaster management setup in India.
    • National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): The Act led to the creation of the NDRF, comprising several battalions or teams responsible for on-ground relief and rescue operations in various states.

    Understanding the National Disaster Relief Fund (NDRF)

    • Mention in the Act: The NDRF is referenced in the 2005 Disaster Management Act and plays a crucial role in providing disaster relief.
    • State Disaster Relief Funds (SDRFs): States have their own SDRFs, which are the primary funds available for responding to notified disasters. The Central Government contributes 75% to SDRFs in general states and 90% in northeastern and Himalayan states.
    • Utilization of SDRFs: SDRFs are allocated for immediate relief efforts following notified calamities, including cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, fires, floods, tsunamis, and more.
    • Central Assistance: In the event of a severe calamity where state SDRF funds are insufficient, additional central assistance can be provided by the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF).

    Who determines a Severe Calamity?

    • Procedure: States follow a specific procedure to classify a calamity as “severe.” This involves submitting a memorandum detailing sector-wise damage and fund requirements. An inter-ministerial central team assesses the damage on-site.
    • Committee Approval: Specific committees review these assessments and submit reports. A High-Level Committee must approve the immediate relief amount to be released from the NDRF.
    • Criteria: The classification of a calamity as “severe” considers factors such as intensity, magnitude, assistance needs, and more.

    Additional Funds for Disaster Mitigation

    • Funds Allocation: Funds for NDRF and SDRFs, allocated for preparedness, mitigation, and reconstruction, are part of budgetary allocations.
    • Financing mechanism: The 15th Finance Commission introduced a new methodology for state-wise allocations, considering factors like past expenditure, risk exposure, hazard, and vulnerability.
    • Utilization: NDRF and SDRF funds are released in two equal instalments, typically with requirements like Utilization Certificates. However, in urgent situations, these requirements can be waived.
    • State Disaster Mitigation Fund (SDMF): This fund supports activities such as forest restoration and public awareness. It received an allocation of Rs 32,030 crore from the 15th Finance Commission.
    • National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF): The NDMF, amounting to Rs 13,693 crore, is dedicated to national disaster mitigation efforts.

  • Why Zoning of Flood Plains is important?

    flood plain

    Central Idea

    • Punjab has been grappling with severe floods for over a month, predominantly affecting villages along rivers like Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, and Ghaggar.
    • These areas, known for their fertile flood plains, have been hit the hardest due to floods exacerbated by encroachments and construction.

    Flood Plains and their Significance

    • Flood plains adjacent to rivers serve as natural defences against inland flooding. Maintained without concrete encroachments, they absorb excess water, safeguarding other regions.
    • Properly managed flood plains also aid in recharging groundwater levels and maintaining the water table.

    What is Zoning of Flood Plains?

    • Zoning of flood plains refers to the practice of categorizing and regulating different areas within flood-prone regions based on their vulnerability to flooding and the intensity of flood events.
    • This aims to manage land use and construction activities in these areas to minimize the risks associated with flooding, protect communities and infrastructure, and maintain the natural functions of flood plains.
    • It involves designating specific zones within flood-prone regions and establishing regulations and guidelines for development, construction, and land use in each zone.

    Current Scenario: No Zoning in Punjab

    • National Green Tribunal (NGT): NGT guidelines state that construction should not occur within 500 meters of a river’s central lining.
    • Punjab’s Lag: Despite NGT’s directives and the need for floodplain zoning, Punjab has yet to initiate the process. Encroachments persist, putting riverside villages at perpetual risk.

    Impact of Inaction: People and Ecosystems Affected

    • Risk to People and Property: Unregulated construction leads to increased flood risks further inland, causing greater harm during floods.
    • Environmental Impact: Concretization of flood plains delays water drainage and affects soil fertility and quality.

    Flood Prone Districts and National Issue

    • Districts at Risk: Many districts including Ropar, Ludhiana, Ferozepur, Patiala, and more fall within flood plains, magnifying the need for preparedness.
    • Nationwide Challenge: While only four states have adopted flood plain zoning in principle, implementation has been insufficient. Even those that adopted zoning have not effectively delineated and demarcated flood plains.

    Activists’ Advocacy

    • Activists’ Concerns: Environmental activists and NGOs in Punjab have been advocating for flood plain zoning to mitigate risks.
    • Urgent Implementation: Immediate initiation and completion of flood plain zoning are crucial to safeguard lives, property, and ecosystems from devastating floods.

    Conclusion

    • The recent floods in Punjab underline the urgency of flood plain zoning to avert catastrophe.
    • By adopting effective zoning measures, the state can shield its citizens and environment from the damaging impacts of unchecked construction and flooding.
    • It is imperative that Punjab takes swift action to implement flood plain zoning and thereby protect its vulnerable regions from the perpetual threat of floods.

  • In news: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

    Central Idea

    • Japan has begun discharging treated radioactive wastewater from the disabled Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station into the Pacific Ocean in a plan endorsed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

    International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

    • IAEA is an international organization that plays a pivotal role in promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy while preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
    • It was established in 1957 as an autonomous agency under the UN is headquartered in Vienna, Austria.
    • It plays a crucial role in safeguarding the principles outlined in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1970.
    • Despite its independent treaty, the IAEA remains accountable to both the UN General Assembly and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).

    What does it do?

    • Promotion of Peaceful Nuclear Energy: Established amidst the Cold War’s geopolitical tension, the IAEA’s core mission centers on promoting the constructive application of nuclear energy.
    • Prevention of Military Use: The agency’s fundamental role is to prevent the diversion of nuclear programs for military intentions, ensuring compliance with international agreements.

    IAEA’s Tri-fold Missions

    • Peaceful Utilization: Fostering member states’ constructive adoption of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes constitutes a pivotal aspect of IAEA’s mission.
    • Safeguarding Measures: A cornerstone role of the IAEA involves implementing measures to verify the non-military use of nuclear energy, particularly through assessing declared nuclear activities and materials.
    • Nuclear Safety: The IAEA takes an active stance in advocating stringent standards of nuclear safety to prevent accidents and ensure public and environmental protection.

    Significant feature: IAEA’s Safeguards

    • Purpose of Safeguards: IAEA’s safeguards are mechanisms designed to affirm that a nation adheres to its international commitment against exploiting nuclear programs for weaponry purposes.
    • Verification Approach: Safeguards are founded on the meticulous examination of a state’s reported nuclear materials and activities, evaluating their accuracy and completeness.
    • Varied Verification Measures: The agency employs a range of verification tools, including on-site inspections, visits, and ongoing monitoring, ensuring rigorous oversight.

    Dual Dimensions of Safeguards

    • Declared Nuclear Material Verification: Through the inspection of reported nuclear materials and activities, IAEA ensures that a state remains transparent in its nuclear endeavors.
    • Non-Diversion Assurance: A significant facet is the assurance of the absence of undeclared nuclear materials or activities, thereby averting any unauthorized deviation from peaceful usage.

  • Himachal Floods: A man-made disaster?

    himachal

    Central Idea

    • Himachal Pradesh has experienced devastating flash floods during the recent monsoon season, resulting in a significant loss of lives and assets.
    • This article explores the factors contributing to the floods, including climate change and anthropogenic actions, and raises questions about the current development model’s sustainability.

    Reasons for amplified Flood Impacts

    [A] Climate Change and Floods

    • IPCC’s Warning: The IPCC VI report predicts that the Himalayas and coastal regions of India will be the hardest hit by climate change. Increased precipitation in shorter periods is evident in the Himalayas, leading to heavy rains and floods.
    • Abnormal Rainfall: Normal rainfall is expected to be between 720mm and 750mm, but instances of exceeding 888mm in 2010 and 926.9mm in 2018 have been observed. The current precipitation has been a result of the combined effect of the southwest monsoon and western disturbances.

    [B] Impact of Development Model

    • Dr. Parmar Model: Himachal Pradesh’s development model, initiated in 1971, transformed the state into a model of development for mountain regions. It focused on land reforms, social welfare investments, and human resource development.
    • Shift in Development: Liberalization brought demands for fiscal reforms, forcing the state to generate its own resources. Exploitation of natural resources such as forests, water, tourism, and cement production became the focus of development efforts.
    • Hydropower Projects: Dominant focus on hydropower projects led to uncontrolled construction, transforming mountain rivers into streams, and causing ecological damage.
    • Tourism Expansion: Road expansion for tourism promotion resulted in bypassing geological studies, leading to landslides and destruction during rainfall.
    • Cement Plants: Establishment of massive cement plants altered the landscape, reducing the land’s water absorption capacity and contributing to flash floods.
    • Changing Crop Patterns: Shift from traditional cereal farming to cash crops increased the demand for hastily constructed roads without proper drainage, leading to rapid swelling of rivers during rainfall.

    Way Forward

    • Commission of Inquiry: Instituting a Commission of Inquiry involving major stakeholders can address policy framework failures and project aspects.
    • Empowering Local Communities: A new architecture is needed to empower local communities over their assets. Insuring assets and involving local communities as custodians can expedite rebuilding efforts.
    • Sustainable Infrastructure: With climate change as a reality, infrastructure planning should adapt to avert disasters and mitigate the impacts of heavy rainfall.

    Conclusion

    • The flash floods in Himachal Pradesh demonstrate the consequences of both climate change and human-induced development.
    • It calls for a comprehensive approach that considers sustainable development practices, empowers local communities, and prioritizes environmental conservation to protect lives and assets in the region.

  • Lightning not a Natural Disaster: Centre

    light

    Central Idea

    • A senior government official stated that lightning deaths can be prevented through education and awareness, and thus, the government is against declaring it a natural disaster.

    Why discuss this?

    • State Demands: States like Bihar and West Bengal have requested that lightning-related deaths be considered natural disaster, making victims eligible for compensation from the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF).
    • Increased fatalities: According to the National Crime Records Bureau, lightning caused 2,880 deaths in 2021, accounting for 40% of all accidental deaths from “forces of nature.”

    What is Lightning?

    Lightning is a rapid and powerful discharge of electricity in the atmosphere, often directed towards the Earth.

    • Genesis: Lightning discharges occur in giant, moisture-bearing clouds that are several kilometers tall.
    • Ice Crystal Formation: Water vapor in the clouds condenses into small ice crystals as temperatures drop below 0°C.
    • Electron Release and Collision: Collisions between ice crystals generate a release of electrons, leading to a chain reaction and the formation of a positive and negative charge within the cloud.
    • Types: Lightning can occur within clouds (inter-cloud and intra-cloud) or between the cloud and the ground (cloud-to-ground).

    Intensity of Lightning Strikes

    • Voltage and Amperage: A typical lightning flash can reach around 300 million volts and 30,000 amps, significantly higher than household current.
    • Comparisons: Household current is 120 volts and 15 amps, highlighting the immense power of lightning.

    Mitigating Lightning Incidents

    • Early Warning System: India has established an early warning system for lightning, saving numerous lives.
    • Focus on Rural Areas: Over 96% of lightning deaths occur in rural areas, necessitating mitigation and awareness programs targeted at these communities.
    • Deployment of Protection Devices: Low-cost lightning protection devices need to be deployed more widely, especially in rural areas.
    • Lightning Action Plans: States are encouraged to develop and implement lightning action plans, similar to heat action plans, to mitigate lightning-related risks.
    • International Centre for Excellence: Efforts are underway to establish an international center for excellence in lightning research to enhance detection and early warning systems.

     

  • States demand that ‘Lightning’ be declared a Natural Disaster

    Central idea: A few states have requested lightning to be declared a natural disaster due to the high number of deaths caused by it in the country.

    Why discuss this?

    • Around 2,500 people die every year due to lightning.
    • Present norms consider cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, fires, floods, tsunamis, hailstorms, landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts, pest attacks, frost, and cold waves as disasters covered under the State Disaster Response Fund.
    • Deliberations are necessary as it is a policy issue.

    What is lightning?

    • Scientifically, lightning is a rapid and massive discharge of electricity in the atmosphere some of which is directed towards earth.
    • The discharges are generated in giant moisture-bearing clouds that are 10-12 km tall.
    • The base of these clouds typically lie within 1-2 km of the Earth’s surface, while the top is 12-13 km away.
    • Temperatures in the top of these clouds are in the range of –35° to –45°C.

    Its formation

    • As water vapour moves upward in the cloud, the falling temperature causes it to condense.
    • As they move to temperatures below 0°C, the water droplets change into small ice crystals.
    • They continue to move up, gathering mass until they are so heavy that they start to fall to Earth.
    • This leads to a system in which, simultaneously, smaller ice crystals are moving up and bigger crystals are coming down.
    • Collisions follow and trigger the release of electrons, a process that is very similar to the generation of sparks of electricity.
    • As the moving free electrons cause more collisions and more electrons, a chain reaction ensues.
    • This process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively charged, while the middle layer is negatively charged.
    • The electrical potential difference between the two layers is huge, of the order of a billion to 10 billion volts.
    • In very little time, a massive current, of the order of 100,000 to a million amperes, starts to flow between the layers.

    Types of lightning

    • Broadly, there are three forms of lightning:
    1. Inter-cloud
    2. Intra-cloud
    3. Cloud-to-ground
    • It is the cloud-to-ground form of lightning that kills humans, as well as animals and livestock, and can substantially damage property.
    • While the Earth is a good conductor of electricity, it is electrically neutral.
    • However, in comparison to the middle layer of the cloud, it becomes positively charged.
    • As a result, about 15%-20% of the current gets directed towards the Earth as well.
    • It is this flow of current that results in damage to life and property on Earth.

    How intensely does it strike?

    • A typical lightning flash is about 300 million volts and30,000 amps.
    • To put it in perspective, household current is 120 volts and 15 amps.
    • A flash of lightning is enough to light a 100-watt incandescent bulb for about three months.

    Why does lightning kill so many people in India?

    • The reason for the high number of deaths is due to people being caught unawares and more than 70% of fatalities happened due to people standing under isolated tall trees.
    • About 25 per cent of the people were struck in the open.
    • Also, lightning is the direct promulgation of climate change extremities.

    Mitigating lightning incidents

    • Lightning is not classified as a natural disaster in India.
    • But recent efforts have resulted in the setting up of an early warning system that is already saving many lives.
    • More than 96% of lightning deaths happen in rural areas.
    • As such, most of the mitigation and public awareness programmes need to focus on these communities.
    • Lightning protection devices are fairly unsophisticated and low-cost. Yet, their deployment in the rural areas, as of now, is extremely low.
    • States are being encouraged to prepare and implement lightning action plans, on the lines of heat action plans.
    • An international centre for excellence on lightning research to boost detection and early warning systems is also in the process of being set up.

  • ISRO releases Landslide Atlas of India

    landslide

    The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) recently released the Landslide Atlas of India to identify landslide hotspots in the country.

    What are Landslides?

    • Landslides are natural disasters that occur in mountainous terrains where soil, rock, geology, and slope conditions are conducive.
    • A landslide is the sudden movement of rock, boulders, earth, or debris down a slope.
    • They can be triggered by natural causes such as heavy rainfall, earthquakes, snowmelting, and undercutting of slopes due to flooding.
    • They are extremely hazardous, posing a threat to human and animal lives, damaging property, roads, and bridges, disrupting communication lines, and snapping power lines.
    • Landslides are broadly classified based on the type of materials involved, the type of movement of the material, and the type of flow of the material.

    Why do they occur?

    • Landslides are natural disasters that occur mainly in mountainous terrains due to conducive conditions of soil, rock, geology, and slope.
    • Heavy rainfall, earthquakes, snow-melting, and undercutting of slopes due to flooding can trigger landslides.
    • Anthropogenic activities such as excavation, cutting of hills and trees, excessive infrastructure development, and overgrazing by cattle can also cause landslides.

    Factors contributing

    • The main factors that influence landslides include lithology, geological structures like faults, hill slopes, drainage, geomorphology, land use and land cover, soil texture and depth, and weathering of rocks.
    • Rainfall variability pattern is the single biggest cause for landslides in India, with the Himalayas and the Western Ghats remaining highly vulnerable.

    India’s vulnerability to landslides

    • India is considered among the top five landslide-prone countries globally, where at least one death per 100 sq. km is reported in a year due to a landslide event.
    • Approximately 12.6% of the country’s geographical land area (0.42 million sq km) is prone to landslides, with 66.5% of landslides reported from the North-western Himalayas, 18.8% from the North-eastern Himalayas, and 14.7% from the Western Ghats.

    Risks in specific states          

    • Mizoram recorded the highest number of landslide events in the past 25 years, with 12,385 events, of which 8,926 were recorded in 2017 alone.
    • Nagaland and Manipur also reported a high number of landslide events during the 2017 monsoon season.
    • Uttarakhand and Kerala reported the highest number of landslides, with Uttarakhand experiencing 11,219 events since 1998, and Kerala making inhabitants significantly vulnerable to fatalities, despite fewer events.

    Classification and Mapping of Landslides

    • Landslides are broadly classified based on the type of materials involved, type of movement, type of flow of the material, and whether they spread laterally.
    • The Landslide Atlas of India maps landslides mainly based on events and seasons.
    • The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) used a landslide database created from 1998 to 2022 using aerial and high-resolution satellite images.