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Subject: Environment

  • Why SC couldn’t agree on the environmental release of GM mustard? 

    Why in the news?

    A two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court delivered a split verdict on Tuesday, July 23, regarding the “environmental release” of Genetically Modified (GM) mustard.

    About GM Mustard Crop 

    • Development and Approval Process: On September 15, 2015, the Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (CGMCP) at Delhi University sought approval from the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) for the environmental release of GM mustard DMH-11.
    • Biosafety Dossier: The CGMCP submitted a biosafety dossier to the GEAC, which created a sub-committee to examine its contents. After revisions, the sub-committee submitted its report, inviting comments in September 2016.
    • GEAC Recommendations: On May 11, 2017, the GEAC recommended the environmental release of GM mustard, allowing field tests to assess the crop’s effects. However, the Ministry of Environment sent the proposal back for re-examination in March 2018 after receiving several representations.
    • Deferred Tests: The GEAC directed the CGMCP to examine the effects of GM mustard on honey bees and soil microbial diversity, but these tests were deferred through 2020-21.
      • The GEAC-appointed expert committee found that honeybees do not discriminate between other GM crops such as genetically engineered canola.

    What is the case before the Supreme Court?

    • Background of the Case: The case arose from challenges by environmentalist Aruna Rodrigues and the organization Gene Campaign against the GEAC’s approval for the environmental release of GM mustard, arguing that the decision violated the precautionary principle and lacked proper scientific scrutiny.
    • Split Verdict: The Supreme Court delivered a split verdict regarding the approval for the environmental release of genetically modified (GM) mustard, specifically the hybrid DMH-11. Justices B.V. Nagarathna and Sanjay Karol had differing opinions on the legality of the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee’s (GEAC) decision-making process.
    • Justice Nagarathna’s Opinion: Justice Nagarathna held that the GEAC’s approval was flawed and did not follow the necessary procedures, particularly failing to conduct promised field tests. She emphasized that the approval violated public trust and the precautionary principle, which is essential for protecting the environment and public health.
    • Justice Karol’s Opinion: In contrast, Justice Karol argued that the GEAC’s decision was valid and aligned with the development of scientific temper. He stated that field trials are necessary to assess the environmental safety of GM mustard and that the decision-making process was independent and reasoned.
    • Unanimous Directives: Despite the split decision, both judges agreed on the need for the Union government to formulate a national policy regarding GM crops. This policy should involve consultations with various stakeholders, including experts, farmers, and state governments.
    • Case referred to larger bench: The case will be referred to a larger bench for further adjudication due to the differing opinions. The Supreme Court directed that the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) should conduct a national consultation within four months to develop this policy.
    • Concerns Raised: Justice Nagarathna pointed out that the GEAC did not consider the long-term effects of GM mustard on health and the environment, while Justice Karol noted the importance of conducting field trials under strict safeguards to monitor the crop’s impact.

    Conclusion: The Union government should formulate a detailed and inclusive national policy on genetically modified crops. This policy should be based on extensive consultations with experts, farmer representatives, state governments, and other stakeholders to ensure a balanced approach that considers scientific, environmental, and public health perspectives.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q  What are the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification? (2021)

  • In news: Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary

    Why in the News?

    • The Gandhi Sagar sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh is the preferred location for the next batch of cheetah’s relocation plan.
      • However, Banni in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat is also being prepared to house some of them.

    Cheetah Reintroduction in India:

    • In India, cheetahs disappeared in the early 1950s due to hunting and the loss of their habitat.
    • The ‘Action Plan for Reintroduction of Cheetah in India /Project Cheetah (2022)’ aims to bring cheetahs from African countries to various national parks.
    • It is spearheaded by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
    • Recently, cheetahs from Namibia were reintroduced in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
    • Cheetah are listed as VULNERABLE by the IUCN; Schedule II of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Kuno NP and Gandhi Sagar has an ideal habitat parallel to Maasai Mara (a National Park) in Kenya, suitable for cheetahs.

    About Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

    • It is located in western Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 368.62 sq km.
    • It is a flat rocky plateau characterized by shallow topsoil and exposed sheetrock.
    • It is divided by the Chambal River, with the Gandhi Sagar dam and reservoir within its boundaries.
    • Flora and Fauna:
      • Flora: The sanctuary features a savannah ecosystem with open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees. Riverine valleys within the sanctuary support evergreen vegetation.
      • Fauna: The sanctuary is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including species like leopards, sloth bears, striped hyenas, grey wolves, golden jackals, jungle cats, Indian foxes, and marsh crocodiles.

    About Banni Grasslands:

    • The Banni Grassland is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, covering around 3,847 square km.
    • The climate is arid and semi-arid, with extremely hot summers (temperatures above 45°C) and mild winters (12°C to 25°C), receiving 300-400 mm of annual rainfall mainly during the monsoon.
      • Flora: Grasses such as Dichanthium, Sporobolus, and Cenchrus species, with salt-tolerant plants, shrubs, and trees like Acacia and the invasive Prosopis juliflora.
      • Fauna: Indian wolf, hyena, chinkara, Great Indian Bustard, flamingos, and various raptors, reptiles, and invertebrates.
    • It is inhabited by pastoral communities like the Maldharis, who rely on livestock grazing (cattle, buffalo, and sheep) for their livelihood.
    • Agriculture is limited due to arid conditions, with some areas used for salt production.

    PYQ:

    [2024]  Consider the following statements:

    1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.

    2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

    3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2012]  Consider the following: (2012)

    1. Black-necked crane
    2. Cheetah
    3. Flying squirrel
    4. Snow leopard

    Which of the above are naturally found in India?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
    (c) 2 and 4 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • Typhoon Gaemi 

    Why in the News?

    After making landfall in the Philippines, Typhoon Gaemi is heading towards Taiwan.

    What is a Typhoon?

    • A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that forms in the Northwest Pacific Ocean, primarily between 100°E and 180°E.
    • It is characterised by strong winds, and heavy rain, and can cause significant damage due to high wind speeds, storm surges, and flooding.

    Factors causing its formation:

    • It needs sustained ocean temperatures of 26.5°C or higher.
    • High moisture content in the mid-troposphere.
    • Presence of the Coriolis force to initiate rotation.
    • Minimal vertical wind shear to allow for storm growth.
    • Atmospheric instability to promote rising motion and thunderstorm activity.
    • An initial low-pressure area or tropical wave to trigger development.
      • Formation Regions: Northwest Pacific Ocean in areas east of the Philippines, southeast of Japan, and near Taiwan; South China Sea and in Western North Pacific near the Mariana Islands and Guam.
    Note: Typhoons do not form in the South Atlantic Ocean and the southeastern Pacific Ocean because of cooler sea surface temperatures and higher wind shear in those regions.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the reason?

    (a) Sea surface temperatures are low
    (b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs
    (c) Coriolis force is too weak
    (d) Absence of land in those regions

  • What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy, announced by FM Sitharaman?

    Why in the News?

    • The 2024 Union Budget, presented by Finance Minister, includes developing a taxonomy for climate finance.
      • The aim is to enhance the availability of capital for climate adaptation and mitigation.

    What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy?

    • A climate finance taxonomy is a classification system that identifies which economic activities can be marketed as sustainable investments.
    • It serves as a guide for investors and financial institutions to direct capital towards projects that contribute to climate adaptation and mitigation, aligning with broader environmental goals.

    Significance of a Climate Finance Taxonomy

    • Net-Zero Economy: With global temperatures rising and the adverse effects of climate change worsening, countries need to transition to a net-zero economy.
    • Alignment with Transition Pathways: Taxonomies help ascertain if economic activities are aligned with credible, science-based transition pathways.
    • Deployment of Climate Capital: They provide an impetus for the deployment of climate capital by directing investments towards sustainable projects.
    • Reduction of Greenwashing Risks: Taxonomies help reduce the risks of greenwashing by providing clear criteria for what constitutes a sustainable investment.

    Why does India need a Green Taxonomy?

    • According to the IFC, India needs an estimated $10.1 trillion to achieve net-zero by 2070.
    • Public investments alone can’t match this goal, calling for standardization in investments.

    Benefits for India

    • For India, a taxonomy could attract more climate funds from international sources.
    • Currently, green finance flows in India are falling short of the country’s needs, accounting for only around 3% of total FDI inflows, according to the Landscape of Green Finance in India 2022 report by the Climate Policy Initiative.
    • A lack of clarity on what constitutes sustainable activity is a significant reason for the low green finance flows. A taxonomy would address this issue.

    India’s Climate Commitments:

    • India aims to achieve a net-zero economy by 2070.
    • The country has pledged to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030, compared to the 2005 level.
    • India has also committed to achieving about 50% of its cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.

    Steps taken by India:

    • In January 2021, India established a task force on sustainable finance under the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance.
      • The task force’s objectives include creating a framework for sustainable finance, establishing pillars for a sustainable finance roadmap, suggesting a draft taxonomy of sustainable activities, and creating a framework of risk assessment by the financial sector.
    • In April 2021, the RBI joined the Central Banks and Supervisors Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) as a member.
    • RBI is also a member of a task force on climate-related financial risks set up by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision and the International Platform on Sustainable Finance.

    Potential for Green Investments in India

      • According to a report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), India has a climate-smart investment potential of $3.1 trillion from 2018 to 2030.
      • The largest investment opportunity lies in the electric vehicle segment, with a potential of $667 billion as India aims to electrify all new vehicles by 2030.
    • The renewable energy sector also presents a substantial investment opportunity, estimated at $403.7 billion.

    International Adoption of Taxonomies

    • Many countries have either started developing or have finalized their taxonomies.
    • Countries with developed taxonomies include South Africa, Colombia, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Canada, and Mexico.
    • The European Union has also developed its own taxonomy.

    PYQ:

    [2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
    2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 2 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • CPCB plans to check violations in Plastic Waste Trading Regime 

    Why in the News?

    • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has started a national audit of about 800 plastic-waste recyclers across India.
      • This action follows the discovery that four firms in Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat issued nearly 600,000 fake certificates under the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) programme.

    About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): Overview

    • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is a statutory organization established in September 1974.
    • It was constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
    • CPCB is also entrusted with powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
    • It serves as a technical arm of the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change, implementing the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

    Principal Functions:

    • Water Pollution Control:
      • Promote the cleanliness of streams and wells in different states by preventing, controlling, and abating water pollution.
      • Oversee the National Water Quality Monitoring Program to collect, collate, and disseminate technical and statistical data relating to water pollution.
    • Air Pollution Control:
      • Improve the quality of air and prevent, control, or abate air pollution in the country.
      • Conduct air quality monitoring as part of air quality management.
      • Implement the National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) to determine current air quality status and trends, regulate pollution from industries, and provide background air quality data for industrial siting and town planning.

    Key Initiatives and Programs:

    • National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP): Established to monitor air quality status and trends, and to control and regulate industrial pollution to meet air quality standards.
    • National Air Quality Index (NAQI): Provides real-time air quality data and trends.
    • Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): A set of measures to be taken based on the severity of air pollution levels.
    • Clean Air Campaign: Initiatives aimed at reducing air pollution through public awareness and actionable measures.

    Role in Data Management:

    • CPCB collects, collates, and disseminates technical and statistical data related to water and air pollution.
    • Provides necessary data for regulatory and planning purposes, including industrial siting and urban planning.

    What is Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Programme?

    • Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) means the responsibility of a producer for the environmentally sound management of the product until the end of its life.
    • India had first introduced EPR in 2011 under the:
    1. Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011
    2. E-Waste Management and Handling Rules, 2011.
    • The EPR scheme requires businesses using plastic packaging to recycle a certain percentage of the plastic used in the previous two years.

    Implementation of EPR:

    • Registration: Producers must register with the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and submit an EPR plan.
    • Collection Mechanisms: Producers set up collection centers, return schemes, or partner with authorized recyclers to manage waste.
    • Documentation: Producers are required to maintain detailed records of waste collected and processed and submit regular reports to the CPCB.
    • Compliance Audits: The CPCB conducts audits to ensure that producers comply with EPR requirements.

    Function of EPR Certificates:

    • Registered plastic waste recyclers generate EPR certificates by recycling plastic waste.
    • Every tonne of plastic recycled generates a certificate.
      • According to a CPCB report in May, nearly 3.7 million tonnes of recycled plastic generated certificates.
    • In 2022-23, about 18,000 companies using plastic packaging were registered with the CPCB, aiming to recycle about 3.3 million tonnes.

    Compliance and Targets:

    • Companies must recycle 70% of the packaging used in the previous two financial years for 2022-23 and 100% for 2023-24. Non-compliance with these targets can result in fines.
    • EPR certificates are uploaded on a dedicated portal maintained by the CPCB, allowing recyclers and buyers to trade online.

    PYQ:

    [2019] In India, ‘extended producer responsibility’ was introduced as an important feature in which of the following?

    (a) The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998

    (b) The Recycled Plastic (Manufacturing and Usage) Rules, 1999

    (c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011

    (d) The Food Safety and Standard Regulations, 2011

  • The promise of parametric insurance

    Why in the news? 

    In 2023, natural disaster losses hit $280 billion, with only $100 billion insured, highlighting a need for innovative insurance solutions amid rising extreme weather events.

    Present Method of Disaster Risk Reduction

    • Indemnity-based Insurance Products: Indemnity-based insurance products require a physical assessment of damage after a disaster to determine the payout amount. For example Health Insurance, Motor Insurance and Travel Insurance.

    Challenges:

    • Verification Issues: When large-scale calamities strike, especially in economically disadvantaged areas, it is difficult to verify losses due to the lack of records and widespread destruction.
    • Delays in Payouts: The need for physical assessment can cause delays in providing financial assistance to the affected individuals and communities.
    • Insurance Gap: There is a significant gap in insurance coverage between developed and developing economies, leaving many vulnerable populations without adequate protection.

    Changing course and the associated limitations:

    • Parametric insurance: Payments are made based on predefined parameters of weather events (e.g., rainfall exceeding 100 mm per day for two consecutive days, specific flood levels, wind speed).The payouts are made without the need for physical assessment of losses, enabling quicker disbursements.

    Examples:

    • Disaster-prone Island Countries: Many have adopted parametric insurance for climate adaptation, moving away from risk retention models. For example, Fiji launched its first parametric insurance product in 2021
    • Morocco received $275 million in parametric insurance after a 6.8 magnitude earthquake, arranged with the help of the World Bank.
    • India has initiated crop insurance (e.g., Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana and the Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme).

    Associated Limitations

    • Current Focus: Primarily used for low-frequency, high-impact disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, and hurricanes.
    • Data and Infrastructure Requirements: There is challenges related to developing and maintaining the necessary infrastructure for data collection and monitoring can be challenging, especially in developing regions.
    • Affordability and Accessibility issues: It demands high premiums can still be a barrier for economically disadvantaged communities.

    Case Study of Nagaland:

    • Nagaland was the first state in India to buy parametric cover for extreme precipitation in 2021.
    • Based on lessons learned, it improved the product by fixing an absolute annual premium, duration, and rate online, allowing bidders to compete over lower threshold limits and maximized payouts.

    What can be done to ensure effectiveness? (Way Forward)

    • Precise Thresholds and Robust Monitoring: Establish clear, accurate parameters for insurance triggers and implement reliable monitoring systems to track these parameters effectively.
    • Transparent Bidding and Experience Sharing: Follow a transparent bidding process for price discovery and facilitate the exchange of best practices and lessons learned between governments.
    • Widespread Payout Systems and Household Premium Support: Develop comprehensive systems for distributing payouts and promote long-term premium payment by households, leveraging tools like Aadhaar-based payment dissemination.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005’? (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • India plans to enter into a carbon crediting mechanism with Japan 

    Why in the news? 

    India is set to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) with Japan for carbon trading and emission-reduction credits.

    Memorandum of Cooperation for Setting Up a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM)

    • Objective and Framework: India and Japan plan to sign a Memorandum of Cooperation to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) for sharing emission-reduction credits. The JCM will involve a structured allocation of carbon credits and maintain a registry to track these credits, with projects needing clearance from a Joint Committee.
    • Implementation and Oversight: The mechanism will be governed under Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement, adhering to relevant domestic laws and regulations of both countries. A Joint Committee will develop rules, manage project cycles, and oversee monitoring and issuance of credits.

    Emission Cuts

    • Credit Allocation: Credits issued under the JCM will contribute to both Japan’s and India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. The JCM will avoid double counting of credits and may authorize some credits for international mitigation purposes.
    • Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: Japan will support technology transfer, finance, and capacity building to enhance the effectiveness of the JCM and facilitate the adoption of new technologies.

    Significance of JCM:

    • Increased Access to Clean Technologies: The JCM will facilitate the transfer of advanced decarbonizing technologies from Japan to India, such as renewable energy systems, energy-efficient appliances, and waste management solutions.
    • Job Creation and Skill Development: The implementation of JCM projects will create new employment opportunities in sectors like renewable energy, energy efficiency, and waste management

    Bilateral ties between India and Japan

    • Strategic Partnership: The JCM will strengthen bilateral ties between India and Japan by fostering collaboration on low-carbon technologies and climate action, aimed at boosting job creation and investments in clean technologies.
    • Clean Energy Partnership: It was launched in March 2022, the India-Japan Clean Energy Partnership (CEP) aims to enhance cooperation in sustainable energy transitions to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
    • Investment Commitments: During the 14th India-Japan Annual Summit in March 2022, both nations agreed on a target of $42 billion (JPY 5 trillion) in public and private investment from Japan to India over the next five years
    • Low Carbon Emission Strategies: A $600 million fund was established to focus on environmental sustainability and low carbon emission strategies. This initiative is part of a broader effort to enhance Japanese investments in India while addressing climate change.

    Way forward: 

    • Prioritize the adoption of cutting-edge decarbonizing technologies: Japan should prioritize the transfer of its most advanced low-carbon technologies to India, such as renewable energy systems, energy-efficient appliances, and carbon capture and storage solutions.
    • Expand the scope of the JCM to include other areas of climate cooperation: While the initial focus of the JCM should be on emission reduction projects, India and Japan could explore expanding its scope to include other areas of climate cooperation, such as adaptation measures, climate finance, and capacity building.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • The issue with India’s tree planting schemes

    Why in the news? 

    India’s tree planting schemes have garnered attention as part of the country’s efforts to combat climate change and restore degraded ecosystems. However, these initiatives face several challenges and criticisms.

    Recent Trends of Special Conservation Drives:

    • Increased Initiatives: There has been a surge in global and national tree planting drives, such as the “One Trillion Project” by the World Economic Forum, Pakistan’s “10 Billion Tree Tsunami,” China’s “Great Green Wall,” and the “Bonn Challenge” to restore degraded landscapes.
    • High Media Attention: These drives often feature catchy slogans and glamorous campaigns that attract substantial media attention and public involvement.
    • Annual Events: India celebrates Van Mahotsava annually in July, aiming to promote tree planting and environmental conservation.

    Issues Associated with These Drives:

    • Limited Community Participation: Many programs lack significant involvement from local communities, affecting their effectiveness and sustainability.
    • Post-Planting Measures: Insufficient focus on post-planting care and monitoring hinders the success of tree planting efforts.
    • Monoculture Risks: Some drives promote monoculture, which can be detrimental to biodiversity and carbon sequestration.
    • Ecological Impact: Inappropriate tree planting in non-deforested areas like grasslands or animal habitats can damage ecosystems, increase wildfire risk, and exacerbate global warming.

    India’s Accountability and Challenges Toward Environmental Goals:

    • Achievements: India claims to have fulfilled its Paris Agreement commitments and achieved an additional carbon sink of 1.97 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
    • Encroachment and Loss: Approximately 10 million hectares of Indian forests are under encroachment, and about 5.7 million hectares have been lost for non-forestry purposes.
    • Dependence on Forests: Nearly 27.5 crore people rely on forests for subsistence, highlighting the importance of sustainable management.
    • Restoration Goals: India aims to restore 26 million hectares of degraded forests by 2030, but faces challenges such as encroachment and the need for effective tree planting strategies.

    Way forward: 

    • Community Involvement: Need to foster local participation in tree planting drives by involving communities in planning, execution, and ongoing maintenance.
    • Monitoring and Maintenance: Try to implement robust post-planting monitoring and care systems to ensure the survival and growth of planted trees.
    • Policy and Strategy Improvements: To address criticism of mass planting drives, India needs to prioritize adequate financing, active community participation, and technical considerations in forestry and restoration strategies.

  • 845 Elephant Deaths recorded in Kerala in eight years

    Why in the News?

    • Kerala’s forests have recorded 845 elephant deaths between 2015 and 2023.
      • Studies indicate an increasing trend in the death rate over time.

    Habitat and Population Challenges

    • Elephants face increasing vulnerability due to shrinking habitats and rising fragmentation exacerbated by climate change.
    • Factors contributing to their susceptibility include:
    1. Declining population sizes
    2. Sensitivity to high temperatures
    3. Competition from invasive plant species disrupting food sources
    4. Heightened susceptibility to diseases

    Elephant Mortality: Key Trends

    • Younger elephants, particularly those under 10 years of age, face the highest risk of mortality.
    • The mortality rate for calves is approximately 40%.
    • The increase in deaths among calves is primarily due to Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesviruses – Haemorrhagic Disease (EEHV-HD).

    Influence of Herd Size on Survival:

    • A recent study in Sri Lanka highlights potential mitigating factors against the herpesvirus.
    • Calves in larger herds exhibit better survival rates due to shared immunity.
    • Exposure to various virus strains within larger herds helps calves develop antibodies, improving their chances of survival.

    About Elephants in India

    Details
    Population Estimate
    • India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals,
    • Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
    Leading States Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
    Conservation Status
    • IUCN Red List:  Endangered.
    • CMS: Appendix I.
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I,
    • CITES: Appendix I.
    Conservation Initiatives
    • Project Elephant launched in 1992, covering 23 states across India.
    • India is home to more than 60% of all wild Asian elephants.
    • Contributed to the increase in wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.
    • Establishment of Elephant Reserves. Total 33 in numbers covering approximately 80,777 Sq.km.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:

    1. The leader of an elephant group is a female.
    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 4 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 3 and 4 only

  • Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)

    Why in the News?

    • The origin of life on Earth remains one of the world’s most enduring mysteries.
      • Numerous competing theories exist, but none have conclusive proof.
      • A significant concept in understanding the origin of life is the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA).

    What is the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)?

    • Researchers believe that all life forms— the Bacteria, the Archaea, and the Eukarya —originated from a single cell known as the last universal common ancestor (LUCA).
    • It is suggested to have been a “cellular organism that had a lipid bilayer and used DNA, RNA, and protein“.
    • There is a lack of clarity about direct fossil evidence of LUCA.
    • However, the shared features of modern genomes provide significant insights into this ancient ancestor.

    LUCA and the Molecular Clock:  

    • The molecular clock theory was proposed by molecular biologist Emile Zuckerkandl and biochemist Linus Pauling in the 1960s and later refined by biologist Motoo Kimura.
    • The theory allows scientists to reconstruct the evolutionary timeline.
    • According to the theory, the rate at which mutations are added or removed from a population’s genome is proportional to the rate of acquiring new mutations, which is constant.
    • By calibrating the molecular clock with known events, such as the emergence of the first mammals or the age of certain fossils, researchers can estimate the time between evolutionary events.

    Recent Research Findings on LUCA’s Age and Genome

    • Researchers at the University of Bristol and Exeter estimate that LUCA originated around 4.2 billion years ago, nearly 1 billion years earlier than previously thought. 
      • They obtained evidence from the 3.3 km deep Candelabra’ hydrothermal vent on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
    • LUCA had a small genome of about 2.5 million bases encoding 2,600 proteins, sufficient for survival in a unique niche.
    • Its metabolites may have created a secondary ecosystem for other microbes.
    • The presence of immunity genes in LUCA suggests it had to defend against viruses.

    Evidence Verification using Miller-Urey Experiment

    • In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conducted an experiment at the University of Chicago, simulating lightning strikes on a mixture of methane, ammonia, and water, which resulted in the formation of amino acids.
    • This demonstrated that complex organic compounds could arise from inorganic compounds under the right conditions.

    Which is older: LUCA or fossils?

    • LUCA’s estimated origin at 4.2 billion years predates the earliest fossil records by almost 1 billion years.
    • Fossil records from the Pilbara Craton in Australia suggest life emerged around 3.4 billion years ago, but the study pushes this date back.

    Alternative Theories: 

    (1) Extraterrestrial Origin

    • Another prominent theory suggests that meteorites from space could have brought the building blocks of life to Earth.
    • This theory is supported by various discoveries.
    • In August 2019, French and Italian scientists reported finding 3.3 billion-year-old extraterrestrial organic material.
    • Japan’s Hayabusa 2 mission to the asteroid Ryugu detected more than 20 amino acids, further supporting the possibility of an extraterrestrial origin for the building blocks of life.

    (2) Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis

    • In the 1920s, Alexander Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane independently proposed theories regarding the origin of life.
    • They suggested that life originated from a “primordial soup” in a prebiotic environment on the young Earth.
    • This concept is now known as the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis.

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?

    (a) Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium

    (b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen

    (c) Oxygen, Calcium, Phosphorus

    (d) Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium