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Subject: Environment

  • Southwest Monsoon begins early Withdrawal/Retreat

    The southwest monsoon rainfall, 7% more than normal, has started to withdraw.

    What is Monsoon Withdrawal/Retreat?

    • In India, retreating monsoon is the withdrawal of south-west monsoon winds from North India.
    • The withdrawal is gradual and takes about three months.
    • With the retreat of the monsoons, the clouds disappear and the sky becomes clear. The day temperature starts falling steeply.
    • Monsoon rains weaken all over India except few southeastern states.
    • It is helpful in Rabi crop cultivation.

    Factors affecting the retreat

    Two predominant factors cause the phenomenon:

    (1) Land topography

    • First, the low mountain range in each region runs from north to south, shielding it from west-bound winds that trigger summer monsoon.
    • After summer, the range aids in the ‘orographic lift’ or rising of east-bound air mass from a lower to higher elevation, forming clouds and resulting in rain.

    (2) Atmospheric convection

    • The second factor is atmospheric convection or vertical movement of air.
    • As the earth is heated by the sun, different surfaces absorb different amounts of energy and convection may occur where the surface heats up very rapidly.
    • As the surface warms, it heats the overlying air, which gradually becomes less dense than the surrounding air and begins to rise.
    • This condition is more favorable from September to February because of the role played by sea surface temperature or water temperature.

    Immediate factors influencing withdrawal

    • The withdrawal of the monsoon is based on meteorological conditions such as-
    1. Anti-cyclonic circulation (dry air that is the opposite of a cyclone)
    2. Absence of rain in the past five days and
    3. Dry weather conditions over the region

    When does it occur?

    • The monsoon withdrawal is a long-drawn process and extends into mid-October, though the IMD considers September 30 to be the final day of the season over India.
    • The rain after that is categorised as “post-monsoon” rainfall.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of:

    (a) Equatorial climate

    (b) Mediterranean climate

    (c) Monsoon climate

    (d) All of the above climates

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”9s1wlwig7j” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

    Also read:

    Various terms related to Indian Monsoon

     

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  • What is a Triple-Dip La Nina?

    nina

    Parts of the world are expected to experience severe weather for the rest of the year and into 2023, as part of a rare “triple dip La Nina” event, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

     What is the “Triple-Dip” La Nina?

    • A “triple-dip” La Nina is a multiyear cooling of the surface temperature of the equatorial Pacific Ocean, which can cause droughts, fierce winds and heavy rainfall.
    • According to WMO, the current La Nina is projected to span three consecutive northern hemisphere winters. It began in September 2020.
    • If it continues for the next six months, it will be the first “triple-dip” La Nina event of the 21st century, WMO says.

    How rare is this triple-dip?

    • It is exceptional to have three consecutive years with a la Nina event.
    • Its cooling influence is temporarily slowing the rise in global temperatures – but it will not halt or reverse the long-term warming trend.
    • La Nina’s are usually preceded by El Nino, a weather pattern that warms the surface of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
    • However, an El Nino event did not occur before the current La Nina.

    Has it happened before? Will it happen again?

    • La Nina’s occurred several times between 1903 to 2010 and 2010 to 2012.
    • This would be the first “triple-dip” La Nina this century.
    • However, it is not unprecedented for the weather pattern to last more than nine months to a year, which is typical for a La Nina.

    Evaluating the likely impact

    • In the Indian context, La Nina is associated with good rainfall during the monsoon season.
    • This is the opposite of El Nino which is known to suppress monsoon rainfall.
    • Thus, a continued spell of La Nina could lead to expectation of another year of good, or normal, rainfall during the monsoon.
    • Until now, the monsoon season this year has produced 7% more rain compared to normal. Last year, the seasonal rainfall was almost 100%.
    • But, even though powerful, ENSO condition is only one of the several factors affecting monsoon rainfall in India.

    Impact on rainfall

    • There is no one-on-one correlation between the ENSO condition and the amount of rainfall.
    • Also, the influence of ENSO is at a macro level.
    • There are wide variations in rainfall at the local level, which are getting exacerbated by climate change.

    Differential impacts of this triple-dip event

    • The continuance of La Nina further into 2023 is not bad news from the Indian standpoint. But it is not the same for many other regions where La Nina has very different impacts.
    • In most parts of the United States, for example, La Nina is associated with very dry winters.
    • In Australia and Indonesia, and generally in the tropical region, La Nina is expected to bring more rainfall.
    • The excessive rainfall in Pakistan, which is experiencing its worst flooding disaster, can also be blamed in part on La Nina.
    • It said that the persistence of La Nina was most likely to result in a worsening of the drought in Africa.

    What is its climate change link?

    • Every unusual weather event these days is attributed to climate change, but science is not conclusive right now.
    • The occurrences of El Nino or La Nina are not very regular.
    • Sometimes they emerge every two years, at other times there has been a gap of even seven years.
    • Historical records do not go very far in the past.
    • As a result, the natural variability of ENSO is not understood very clearly.
    • And when the natural variability itself is not clear, the influence of global warming is difficult to quantify.
    • But there is clearer evidence of another kind of linkage with global warming.
    • During La Nina years, the colder surfaces allow the oceans to absorb more heat from the atmosphere.
    • Consequently, the air temperatures tend to go down, producing a cooling effect.

     

     

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  • What are the Big Seven Cats?

    We often get confused to differentiate between Cheetah/Bagh/Sher/Puli. The cheetah, which is being re-introduced to India from Africa, is not to be confused with the leopard, which too has spots that look somewhat similar.

    How are all Big Cats differentiated?

    [A] Genus Panthera

    • This is the genus of large wild cats that can roar but can’t purr.
    • Among them, the lion, the leopard, and the jaguar are more closely related, while the other strand has the tiger and the snow leopard.
    • The snow leopard is an exception to the rest of the group in that it can’t roar.

    (1) Tiger (Panthera Tigris)

    Size: 75-300 kg | IUCN status : Endangered

    • Jim Corbett’s “large-hearted gentleman with boundless courage”, the solitary and strongly territorial tiger is the largest of all wild cats and also the earliest Panthera member to exist.
    • Primarily a forest animal, they range from the Siberian taiga to the Sunderban delta.
    • The national animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and South Korea, the tiger was voted the world’s favourite animal ahead of the dog in a 2004 Animal Planet global online poll.

    (2) Lion (Panthera Leo

    Size: 100-250 kg | IUCN status: Vulnerable

    • Native to Africa and Asia, the lion is the most social cat, and lives in groups called prides.
    • They prefer open forests such as scrubland, and adult males have a prominent mane.
    • The lion is arguably the most widely recognised animal symbol in human culture — be it the Ashoka pillar in Sarnath, the main entrance to Buckingham Palace, or the 20th Century Fox and MGM logo.

    (3) Jaguar (Panthera Onca)

    Size: 50-110 kg | IUCN status: Near Threatened

    • The largest cat in the Americas, the Jaguar has the strongest bite force of all wild cats, enabling it to bite directly through the skull of its prey.
    • Melanistic (black) Jaguars are common and are often called black panthers.
    • Jaguar was a powerful motif in the Mayan and Aztec civilisations.

    (4) Leopard (Panthera Pardus)

    Size: 30-90 kg | IUCN status: Vulnerable

    • Similar in appearance to the Jaguar with a rosette patterned coat, the leopard was described by Jim Corbett as “the most beautiful of all animals” for its “grace of movement and beauty of colouring”.
    • The most adaptable of all big cats, they occupy diverse habitats at all altitudes across Africa and Asia.
    • Like black jaguars, melanistic leopards are called black panthers.
    • In some African cultures, leopards are considered to be better hunters than lions.

    (5) Snow leopard (Panthera Uncia)

    Size: 25-55 kg | IUCN status : Vulnerable

    • The ghost of the mountains, this smokey-grey cat lives above the snow line in Central and South Asia.
    • The most elusive of all big cats, it cannot roar, and has the longest tail of them all — which comes in handy for balance while hunting along the cliffs, and also gives warmth when wrapped around the body.
    • The snow leopard is the state animal of Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh.

    [B] Genus Puma

    • Closely related to the domestic cat, this genus has only one extant species, the cougar.

    Cougar (Puma concolor)

    Size: 40-100 kg | IUCN status: Least Concern

    • The cougar is the second-largest cat in the Americas. (The Jaguar is the largest.)
    • Cougars are also called ‘mountain lion’ and ‘panther’ across their range from the Canadian Yukon to the Southern Andes.
    • Concolor is latin for “of uniform colour”. The Incas designed the city of Cusco in the shape of a cougar.

    [C] Genus Acinonyx

    • This is a unique genus within the cat family, with only one living member, the cheetah.

    Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

    Size: 20-70 kg | IUCN status: Vulnerable

    • The fastest land mammal, the cheetah is the only cat without retractable claws — the grip helps it accelerate faster than any sports car (0-100 km/hr in 3 seconds).
    • Cheetahs are not aggressive towards humans, and they have been tamed since the Sumerian era.
    • They don’t breed well in captivity — picky females play hard to get.
    • Cheetahs are not really big, and they hunt during the day to avoid competing with other big cats.

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  • UNEP launches Green Fins Hub

    fins

    The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) has launched the Green Fins Hub, a global digital platform to give sustainable marine tourism a ‘major boost’.

    Green Fins Hub

    • The Green Fins Global Hub will be a first-of-its-kind online support system to motivate scuba operators to improve their daily environmental practices at scale.
    • It aims to help diving and snorkeling operators worldwide to make simple, cost-efficient changes to their daily practices by utilizing tried and tested solutions.
    • It would also help them keep track of their annual improvements and communicate with their communities and customers.

    Membership of Green Fins Hub

    • It will host two types of membership. One would be digital membership available for diving, snorkelling and liveaboard operations globally.
    • Throughout every year of membership, operators will receive environmental scores based on a detailed online self-evaluation and progress made on their action plans.
    • The Certified Members will continue to be assessed annually and trained in person at their operation.
    • The platform will be for operators around the world to raise industry needs, discuss environmental issues and share lessons and ideas with like-minded industry leaders, non-profits and governments.

     

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  • Cheetah reintroduction

    Cheetah

    Context

    • This is the world’s first intercontinental translocation of a carnivore. It is even more unique because this is the first time cheetahs has reintroduced in an unfenced protected area (PA).
    • The Government is preparing to translocate the first batch from South Africa and Namibia to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh.

    About Asiatic Cheetah

    • Feature: Cheetah, the world’s fastest land animal was declared extinct in India in 1952.
    • Status: The Asiatic cheetah is classified as a “critically endangered” species by the IUCN Red List, and is believed to survive only in Iran.
    • Reintroduction: It was expected to be re-introduced into the country after the Supreme Court lifted curbs for its re-introduction.
    • Extinction: From 400 in the 1990s, their numbers are estimated to have reached to 50-70 today, because of poaching, hunting of their main prey (gazelles) and encroachment on their habitat.

    Cheetah

    Cheetah

    What caused the extinction of cheetahs in India?

    • Reduced fecundity and high infant mortality in the wild
    • Inability to breed in captivity
    • Sport hunting
    • Bounty killings

    Cheetah

    Why reintroduce Cheetahs?

    • Climate Change Mitigation: It will enhance India’s capacity to sequester carbon through ecosystem restoration activities in cheetah conservation areas and thereby contribute towards the global climate change mitigation goals.
    • Reintroductions of large carnivores have increasingly been recognized as a strategy to conserve threatened species and restore ecosystem functions.
    • The cheetah is the only large carnivore that has been extirpated, mainly by over-hunting in India in historical times.
    • India now has the economic ability to consider restoring its lost natural heritage for ethical as well as ecological reasons.

    Why was Kuno National Park chosen for Cheetah Reintroduction?

    • Both Cheetah and Asiatic Lions share the same habitats semi-arid grasslands and forests that stretch across Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.
    • The rainfall, temperature, and altitude in the Sheopur district, where Kuno is situated, are equivalent to those of South Africa and Namibia.
    • In addition, Kuno contains a diverse population of prey species, including peafowl, wild pigs, gazelle, langurs, chital, sambhar, and nilgai.

    What are the Other Recent Initiatives for Wildlife Conservation in India?

    Legal Framework:

    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
    • Environment Protection Act, 1986
    • The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

    India’s Collaboration with Global Wildlife Conservation Efforts:

    • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
    • Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
    • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
    • Global Tiger Forum (GTF)

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  • Why Cloudbursts forecast in India still remains elusive?

    cloudbursts

    The characteristics of cloud burst events remain elusive, and our efforts in monitoring and forecasting them is at an embryonic stage.

    Cyclones can be predicted about one week in advance. However, cloudburst forecasts still remain elusive.

    What is Cloudbursts?

    • A cloudburst is a localised but intense rainfall activity.
    • Short spells of very heavy rainfall over a small geographical area can cause widespread destruction, especially in hilly regions where this phenomenon is the most common.
    • Not all instances of very heavy rainfall, however, are cloudbursts.
    • A cloudburst has a very specific definition: Rainfall of 10 cm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10-km area is classified as a cloudburst event.
    • By this definition, 5 cm of rainfall in a half-hour period over the same area would also be categorized as a cloudburst.

    Which clouds do burst?

    • Cloudburst events are often associated with cumulonimbus clouds that cause thunderstorms and occasionally due to monsoon wind surges and other weather phenomena.
    • Cumulonimbus clouds can grow up to 12-15 km in height through the entire troposphere (occasionally up to 21 km) and can hold huge amounts of water.
    • Tall cumulonimbus clouds can develop in about half an hour as the moisture updraft happens rapidly, at a pace of 60 to 120 km/hr.
    • A single-cell cloud may last for an hour and dump all the rain in the last 20 to 30 minutes, while some of these clouds merge to form multi-cell storms and last for several hours.
    • However, cloudbursts are not defined based on cloud characteristics and do not indicate clouds exploding. Cloudbursts are defined by the amount of rainfall.

    How is it different from normal rainfall?

    • According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), 100 mm of rain in an hour is called a cloudburst.
    • Usually, cloudbursts occur over a small geographical region of 20 to 30 sq. km.

    When do they occur?

    • In India, cloudbursts often occur during the monsoon season, when the southwesterly monsoon winds bring in copious amounts of moisture inland.
    • The moist air that converges over land gets lifted as they encounter the hills.
    • The moist air reaches an altitude and gets saturated, and the water starts condensing out of the air forming clouds.
    • This is how clouds usually form, but such an orographic lifting together with a strong moisture convergence can lead to intense cumulonimbus clouds taking in huge volumes of moisture that is dumped during cloudbursts.

    How common are cloudbursts?

    • Cloudbursts are not uncommon events, particularly during the monsoon months.
    • Most of these happen in the Himalayan states where the local topology, wind systems, and temperature gradients between the lower and upper atmosphere facilitate the occurrence of such events.
    • However, not every event that is described as a cloudburst is actually, by definition, a cloudburst.
    • That is because these events are highly localized.
    • They take place in very small areas which are often devoid of rainfall measuring instruments.

    Climate change and cloudbursts: How are they related?

    • Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and intensity of cloudbursts worldwide.
    • As the air gets warmer, it can hold more moisture and for a longer time. We call this the Clausius Clapeyron relationship.
    • A 1-degree Celsius rise in temperature may correspond to a 7-10% increase in moisture and rainfall.
    • This increase in rainfall amount does not get spread moderately throughout the season.
    • As the moisture holding capacity of air increases, it results in prolonged dry periods intermittent with short spells of extreme rains.
    • Deeper cumulonimbus clouds will form and the chances of cloudbursts also increase.

    Why are they so destructive?

    • The consequences of these events, however, are not confined to small areas.
    • Because of the nature of terrain, the heavy rainfall events often trigger landslides and flash floods, causing extensive destruction downstream.
    • This is the reason why every sudden downpour that leads to destruction of life and property in the hilly areas gets described as a “cloudburst”, irrespective of whether the amount of rainfall meets the defining criteria.
    • At the same time, it is also possible that actual cloudburst events in remote locations aren’t recorded.

    Detecting cloudbursts

    • Satellites are extensively useful in detecting large-scale monsoon weather systems.
    • However the resolution of the precipitation radars of these satellites can be much smaller than the area of individual cloudburst events, and hence they go undetected.
    • Weather forecast models also face a similar challenge in simulating the clouds at a high resolution.
    • The skillful forecasting of rainfall in hilly regions remains challenging due to the uncertainties in the interaction between the moisture convergence and the hilly terrain.
    • There also involves the cloud microphysics, and the heating-cooling mechanisms at different atmospheric levels.
    • Multiple radars can be a quick measure for providing warnings, but radars are an expensive affair, and installing them across the country may not be practically feasible.

    Solutions to cloudbursts forecast

    • Multiple doppler weather radars can be used to monitor moving cloud droplets and help to provide nowcasts (forecasts for the next three hours).
    • A long-term measure would be mapping the cloudburst-prone regions using automatic rain gauges.
    • If cloudburst-prone regions are co-located with landslide-prone regions, these locations can be designated as hazardous.

     

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  • What is Karoo-Ferrar Large Igneous Province?

    karoo

    A new study shows that a decline in continental plate movement likely controlled the onset and duration of many of the major volcanic events throughout Earth’s history.

    Why is the news?

    • Previous studies have linked major volcanic eruptions with past mass extinctions and disturbances in the global climatic, environmental and the carbon cycle.
    • Large igneous province volcanism, formations due to major volcanic eruptions occurring throughout Earth’s history, released large quantities of greenhouse gasses and toxic compounds into the atmosphere.
    • The sea warmed up by 4°C to 10°C, even at low- to mid-latitudes, the study noted.
    • Increased acidic levels and a lack of oxygen drove major ocean extinctions.
    • Large-scale volcanism took place in southern Africa, Antarctica and Australia. This is known as the Karoo-Ferrar Large Igneous Province.

    About Karoo-Ferrar Large Igneous Province

    • The Karoo and Ferrar Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) are two large igneous provinces in Southern Africa and Antarctica respectively, collectively known as the Karoo-Ferrar, Gondwana, or Southeast African LIP associated with the initial break-up of the Gondwana supercontinent.
    • Its flood basalt mostly covers South Africa and Antarctica but portions extend further into southern Africa and into South America, India, Australia and New Zealand.
    • Karoo-Ferrar formed just prior to the breakup of Gondwana in the Lower Jurassic epoch, about 183 million years ago.
    • This time corresponds to the early Toarcian anoxic event and the Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction.

     

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  • Urban floods mitigation

    floods
    Context

    • Bengaluru floods are alarming us to go for robust disaster management strategies.

    What is flood?

    • Floods are the most frequent type of natural disaster and occur when an overflow of water submerges land that is usually dry. Floods are often caused by heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt or a storm surge from a tropical cyclone or tsunami in coastal areas.

    Causes of frequent urban floods

    Natural

    • Meteorological Factors:Heavy rainfall, cyclonic storms and thunderstorms causes water to flow quickly through paved urban areas and impound in low lying areas.
    • Hydrological Factors: Overbank flow channel networks, occurrence of high tides impeding the drainage in coastal cities.
    • Climate Change: Climate change due to various anthropogenic events has led to extreme weather events.

    Anthropological

    • Unplanned Urbanization:Unplanned Urbanization is the key cause of urban flooding. A major concern is blocking of natural drainage pathways through construction activity and encroachment on catchment areas, riverbeds and lakebeds.
    • Destruction of lakes: A major issue in India cities. Lakes can store the excess water and regulate the flow of water. However, pollution of natural urban water bodies and converting them for development purposes has increased risk of floods.
    • Unauthorised colonies and excess construction: Reduced infiltration due paving of surfaces which decreases ground absorption and increases the speed and amount of surface flow
    • Poor Solid Waste Management System: Improper waste management system and clogging of storm-water drains because of silting, accumulation of non-biodegradable wastes and construction debris.
    • Drainage System:Old and ill maintained drainage system is another factor making cities in India vulnerable to flooding.
    • Irresponsible steps: Lack of attention to natural hydrological system and lack of flood control measures.

    floodsImpact of the devastation due to floods:

    • On economy: Damage to infrastructure, roads and settlements, industrial production, basic supplies, post disaster rehabilitation difficulties etc.
    • On human population and wildlife:Trauma, loss of life, injuries and disease outbreak, contamination of water etc.
    • On environment:Loss of habitat, tree and forest cover, biodiversity loss and large scale greenery recovery failure.
    • On transport and communication: Increased traffic congestion, disruption in rail services, disruption in communication- on telephone, internet cables causing massive public inconvenience.

    Solutions for effective flood management

    • Improved flood warning systems: effective flood warning systems can help take timely action during natural calamities and can save lives. Pre-planning can significantly reduce the effects of floods, giving people time to migrate to safer locations and stock up essentials.
    • Building flood-resilient housing systems: concreting floors can be very useful during floods. Houses should be water proofed and electric sockets should be placed at higher levels up the walls to reduce the chances of shocks.
    • Constructing buildings above flood levels: buildings should be constructed a metre above from the ground to prevent flood damage and evacuation during floods.
    • Resilience to Climate change: drastic climate changes have increased the frequency of natural disasters in many parts of the world. Governments should bring about environment-friendly policy level changes and eliminate the ones hazardous to the environment to tackle the problem of global warming.
    • Create wetlands and encourage reforestation: creating more and more wetlands can help soak up excessive moisture since wetlands act as sponges. Wooded areas can also slow down heavy water flow, minimizing the effects of floods. Reforesting upstream regions can significantly reduce the effects of flood damage.
    • Improve soil conditions: improper soil management, animal hooves, and machinery can make soil compacted. As a result, instead of holding water in and absorbing moisture, the water runs off immediately. Properly drained soil can absorb large amounts of rainwater and can prevent it from flowing into the rivers.
    • Installing flood barriers: these are flood gates designed to prevent the area behind the barrier from flooding. They can also be kept around buildings to keep floodwaters outside the boundary created.
    • Development of GIS– Geographical Information System (GIS) based National Database: for disaster management. GIS is an effective tool for emergency responders to access information in terms of crucial parameters for disaster-affected areas.
    • Developing a Federal flood management plan: with responsibilities of union and state clearly defined.
    • Creation of 2nd flood commission: (Rashtriya Barh Aayog, created in 1976) to study the flood situation in India under rising challenges of climate change and propose a national-level flood resilience and management plan.

    Way forward

    • Resilience of people: The rapid transformation in rainfall characteristics and flooding patterns demand building people’s resilience.
    • Reconsider projects: Construction projects that impede the movement of water and sediment across the floodplain must be reconsidered.
    • Use of technology: At the same time, climate-imposed exigencies demand new paradigms of early-warning and response systems and securing livelihoods and economies.

    Conclusion

    • We can learn to live with nature, we can regulate human conduct through the state and we can strategically design where we build. We need to urgently rebuild our cities such that they have the sponginess to absorb and release water without causing so much misery and so much damage to the most vulnerable of our citizens.

    Mains question

    Q. We need to urgently rebuild our cities such that they have the sponginess to absorb and release water. Discuss the statement in context of urban flood management strategy in India.

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  • Ban on Single-Use Plastics

    Since July 1, 2022, India has banned the manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale, and use of single-use plastics (SUP) items with low utility and high littering potential.

    What are single-use plastics?

    • Single-use plastics, often also referred to as disposable plastics, are commonly used for plastic packaging and include items intended to be used only once before they are thrown away or recycled.
    • These include, among other items, grocery bags, food packaging, bottles, straws, containers, cups and cutlery.

    Why are single-use plastics harmful?

    • The purpose of single-use plastics is to use them once or for a short period of time before disposing of them. Plastic waste has drastic impacts on the environment and human health.
    • There is a greater likelihood of single-use plastic products ending up in the sea than reusable ones.

    SUP ban in India

    • India has taken resolute steps to mitigate pollution caused by littered single-use plastics.
    • A number of items are banned, including earbuds with plastic sticks, balloon sticks, plastic flags, candy sticks, ice cream sticks, polystyrene (thermocol) for decorations, plates, cups, glasses, cutlery such as forks, spoons, knives, straws etc.
    • India has also banned plastic or PVC banners less than 100 micron, stirrers, etc.

    What is the impact on the environment?

    [A] Solid Waste generation

    • The disposal of plastics is one of the least recognized and most highly problematic areas of plastic’s ecological impact.
    • Ironically, one of plastic’s most desirable traits: its durability and resistance to decomposition, is also the source of one of its greatest liabilities when it comes to the disposal of plastics.
    • A very small amount of total plastic production (less than 10%) is effectively recycled; the remaining plastic is sent to landfills.
    • It is destined to remain entombed.

    [B] Ecological Impact

    (i) Groundwater and soil pollution

    • Plastic is a material made to last forever, and due to the same chemical composition, plastic cannot biodegrade; it breaks down into smaller and smaller pieces.
    • When buried in a landfill, plastic lies untreated for years.
    • In the process, toxic chemicals from plastics drain out and seep into groundwater, flowing downstream into lakes and rivers.
    • The seeping of plastic also causes soil pollution and have now started resulting in presence of micro plastics in soil.

    (ii) Water Pollution

    • The increased presence of plastic on the ocean surface has resulted in more serious problems.
    • Since most of the plastic debris that reaches the ocean remains floating for years as it does not decompose quickly, it leads to the dropping of oxygen level in the water.
    • It has severely affected the survival of marine species.
    • When oceanic creatures and even birds consume plastic inadvertently, they choke on it which causes a steady decline in their population.
    • In addition to suffocation, ingestion, and other macro-particulate causes of death in larger birds, fish, and mammals.

    [C] Health Hazards

    • Burning of plastic results into formation of a class of flame retardants called as Halogens.
    • Collectively, these harmful chemicals are known to cause the following severe health problems: cancer, neurological damage, endocrine disruption, birth defects and child developmental disorders etc.

    Ban elsewhere

    • India is not the first country to ban single-use plastics.
    • Bangladesh became the first country to ban thin plastic bags in 2002; New Zealand banned plastic bags in July 2019.
    • China had issued a ban on plastic bags in 2020 with a phased implementation.
    • As of July 2019, 68 countries have plastic bag bans with varying degrees of enforcement.

    What are the plastic waste management rules in India?

    • With effect from September 30, 2021 India has the Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules, 2021.
    • It prohibited the manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale, and use of plastic carry bags whose thickness is less than 75 microns.
    • From December 31, 2022, plastic carry bags whose thickness is less than 120 microns will be banned.
    • It means that the ban does not cover all plastic bags; however, it requires the manufacturers to produce plastic bags thicker than 75 microns which was earlier 50 microns.
    • As per the notification, the standard shall be increased to 120 microns in December this year.

    What is the role of the manufacturer?

    • In addition, the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change notified the Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules, 2022 on February 16, 2022.
    • Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is the responsibility of a producer for the environmentally sound management of the product until the end of its life.
    • The guidelines provide a framework to strengthen the circular economy of plastic packaging waste, promote the development of new alternatives to plastic packaging and provide the next steps for moving towards sustainable plastic packaging by businesses.

    Various steps taken

    • The Indian government has taken steps to promote innovation and create an ecosystem for accelerated adoption and availability of alternatives across the country.
    • To ensure the effective enforcement of the ban, national and State-level control rooms will be established, as well as special enforcement teams for the purpose of checking the illegal sale and use of single-use plastics.
    • To prevent the movement of banned single-use plastic items between States and Union Territories, border checkpoints have been established.
    • In an effort to empower citizens to help curb the plastic menace, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has launched a grievance redressal application.

    What are the challenges?

    • The ban will succeed only if all stakeholders participate enthusiastically and engage in effective engagement and concerted actions.
    • However, if we look back at our past, almost 25 Indian States previously banned plastic at the state level.
    • However, these bans had a very limited impact in reality because of the widespread use of these items.
    • Now the challenge is to see how the local level authorities will enforce the ban in accordance with the guidelines.
    • Banned items such as earbuds with plastic sticks, plastic sticks for balloons, etc., are non-branded items and it is difficult to find out who the manufacturer is and who is accountable.

    Way forward

    • The consumer needs to be informed about the ban through advertisements, newspaper or TV commercials, or on social media.
    • In order to find sustainable alternatives, companies need to invest in research and development.
    • The solution to the plastic pollution problem is not the responsibility of the government alone, but of industries, brands, manufacturers and most importantly consumers.
    • Finding alternatives to plastic seems a little difficult, however, greener alternatives to plastic may be considered a sustainable option.
    • For example, compostable and bio-degradable plastic, etc., may be considered as an option.
    • While the total ban on the use of plastic sounds a great idea, its feasibility seems difficult at this hour, especially in the absence of workable alternatives.

     

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  • What is the idea of Climate Reparation?

    Facing the worst flooding disaster in its history, Pakistan has begun demanding reparations, or compensation, from the rich countries that are mainly responsible for causing climate change.

    Why in news?

    • On the face of it, Pakistan’s demand for reparations appears to be a long shot, but the principles being invoked are fairly well-established in environmental jurisprudence.
    • In fact, Pakistan is not alone in making this demand.
    • Almost the entire developing world has for years been insisting on setting up an international mechanism for financial reparation for loss and damage caused by climate disasters.
    • The issue has come up repeatedly at international negotiations for climate change, and on other platforms.

    What is Climate Reparation?

    • At its heart, the demand for compensation for loss and damage from climate disasters is an extension of the universally acknowledged “Polluter Pays” principle.
    • This makes the polluter liable for paying not just for the cost of remedial action, but also for compensating the victims of environmental damage caused by their actions.
    • Climate justice is based on the notion of not being punished for someone else’s bad behaviour, but it does not sanction additional bad behaviour.

    Who are responsible for climate change?

    • In the climate change framework, the burden of responsibility falls on those rich countries that have contributed most of the greenhouse gas emissions since 1850, generally considered to be the beginning of the industrial age.
    • The United States and the European Union, including the UK, account for over 50% of all emissions during this time.
    • If Russia, Canada, Japan, and Australia too are included, the combined contribution goes past 65%, or almost two-thirds of all emissions.
    • Historical responsibility is important because carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, and it is the cumulative accumulation of carbon dioxide that causes global warming.

    What about developing countries?

    • A country like India, currently the third largest emitter, accounts for only 3% of historical emissions.
    • China, which is the world’s biggest emitter for over 15 years now, has contributed about 11% to total emissions since 1850.

    Why need climate reparations?

    • While the impact of climate change is global, it is much more severe on the poorer nations because of their geographical locations and weaker capacity to cope.
    • Countries that have had negligible contributions to historical emissions and have severe limitations of resources are the ones that face the most devastating impacts of climate change.

    Institutional mechanism for Climate Reparations

    (1) United Nations

    • The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the 1994 international agreement that lays down the broad principles of the global effort to fight climate change.
    • It explicitly acknowledges this differentiated responsibility of nations.
    • It makes it very clear that rich countries must provide both the finance and the technology to the developing nations to help them tackle climate change.
    • It is this mandate that later evolved into the $100 billion amount that the rich countries agreed to provide every year to the developing world.
    • While this promise is yet to be met, this $100 billion per year amount is not meant for loss and damage.
    • Climate disasters were not a regular occurrence in 1994, and as such the UNFCCC does not make a mention of loss and damage.
    • This particular demand emerged much later, and faced stiff resistance from the developed nations.

    (2) Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM)

    • The WIM for Loss and Damages, set up in 2013, was the first formal acknowledgment of the need to compensate developing countries struck by climate disasters.
    • However, the progress on this front has been painfully slow.
    • No funding mechanism, or even a promise to provide funds, has come about.

    Pushback from Developed Countries

    • It is not hard to understand why the developed countries are dead against compensation claims.
    • They are struggling to put together even the $100 billion per year flow that they had reluctantly agreed to provide.
    • Further, loss and damage claims can easily spiral into billions of dollars, or even more.
    • The report said that the United States alone is estimated to have “inflicted more than $1.9 trillion in damages to other countries” due to its emissions.

    Issues with loss assessment

    • There are practical difficulties in estimating how much a country has actually suffered due to the actions of others.
    • To begin with, it has to be established that the disaster was caused by climate change.
    • Then there are non-economic losses as well, including loss of lives, displacement and migration, health impacts, and damage to cultural heritage.
    • Then there is this other step about assessing how much of the losses are due to the event itself, and what could be attributed to misgovernance.

    Conclusion

    • A lot of background work is going on to create the framework in which it would be possible to quantify the compensation due to an affected country.
    • What Pakistan has done, through its demands for reparations, is to call attention to this often neglected aspect.

     

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