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Subject: History

  • [pib] Cabinet confers Classical Language Status to Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali languages

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has approved conferring the status of Classical Language to Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali.

    Classical Languages in India:

    Details
    Objective To recognize and preserve Bharat’s profound cultural heritage embodied in these languages and their literary traditions.
    Criteria for Classical Language Status 2004 (when Tamil was declared a Classical Language):

    1. High Antiquity over a thousand years.
    2. A body of ancient literature valued by generations.
    3. Original literary tradition, not borrowed.

    2005 (when Sanskrit was declared a Classical Language):

    1. High Antiquity over 1500-2000 years.
    2. Ancient literature valued by generations.
    3. Original literary tradition, not borrowed.
    4. Distinct from modern forms, with possible discontinuity.

    2024 (as recommended by the Linguistic Experts Committee):

    1. High Antiquity over 1500-2000 years.
    2. Ancient literature valued by generations.
    3. Includes knowledge texts, prose, inscriptions.
    4. Distinct from current forms or may show discontinuity.
    Previously Conferred Status Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Telugu (2008), Kannada (2008), Malayalam (2013), Odia (2014)
    Implementation Strategy • Establishment of Central Universities for Sanskrit (2020)
    • Promotion of Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Odia through the Central Institute of Indian Languages (Mysuru)
    • National and International awards for Classical Languages
    Impact on Employment • Employment in academia, research, and archiving
    • Jobs in preservation, digitization, translation, and publishing of ancient texts
    States Involved Maharashtra (Marathi), Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh (Pali, Prakrit), West Bengal (Bengali), Assam (Assamese)
    The Eighth Schedule
    • Lists 22 official languages, governed by Articles 344(1) and 351 of the Constitution.
    • Includes Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu
    Chronological Additions to the Eighth Schedule • 1950: Initially included 14 languages
    • 1967: Sindhi added (21st Constitutional Amendment)
    • 1992: Konkani, Manipuri (Meitei), Nepali added (71st Constitutional Amendment)
    • 2003: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santali added (92nd Constitutional Amendment)
    • 2011: “Oriya” replaced with “Odia” (96th Constitutional Amendment)

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which one of the following was given classical language status recently?

    (a) Odia

    (b) Konkani

    (c) Bhojpuri

    (d) Assamese

    [2014] Consider the following languages :

    1. Gujarati

    2. Kannada

    3. Telugu

    Which of the above has/have been declared as ‘Classical Language / Languages’ by the Government?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • How India’s Temples are Run?

    Why in the News?

    As the Supreme Court hears petitions about the alleged adulteration of ghee in Lord Venkateswara’s Laddu Prasadam, many religious organizations have renewed their demand to free temples from government control.

    How are Religious Places managed in India?

    • Muslim and Christian places of worship are managed by community-run boards or trusts.
    • Hindu, Sikh, Jain, and Buddhist temples are often under government control.
      • Hindu temples make up the majority of the 30 lakh places of worship in India (2011 census).
    • Under Article 25(2) of the Constitution, the government can regulate economic, financial, or secular activities associated with religious practices.
      • This allows the state to enact laws concerning the administration of Hindu religious institutions.

    Examples of Government Control:

    • Tamil Nadu: The state’s Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments (HR&CE) department manages temples.
    • Andhra Pradesh: The state controls the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams (TTD), including the Tirupati Temple.
    • Jammu and Kashmir: Enacted the Jammu and Kashmir Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Shrine Act, 1988, specifically to manage the Vaishno Devi Shrine in Katra, Jammu.
    • A portion of the income from offerings and donations is used for:
      • Temple administration
      • Maintenance of smaller temples
      • Welfare activities, including hospitals, schools, orphanages, and secular education.

    Historical Context of Government Control Over Temples

    • Ancient India: Temples have historically received land and wealth donations from kings and nobles, becoming centers of culture and economy. Larger temples often promoted agriculture and irrigation.
    • Medieval Period: Many temples were attacked and pillaged by invaders due to their immense wealth.
    • Colonial Era: Between 1810 and 1817, the East India Company enacted laws in Bengal, Madras, and Bombay to regulate temples and prevent the misuse of temple income and endowments.

    Colonial Laws:

    • Religious Endowments Act, 1863: Gave control of temples to committees, but the government maintained influence through judicial jurisdiction and other laws.
    • Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act, 1925: Empowered provincial governments to oversee temple endowments and gave substantial powers to commissioners.

    Post-Independence Laws:

    • After Independence, many states enacted laws based on the Madras Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1951, which gave the government supervision over temples and allowed the appointment of an Executive Officer to manage temple affairs.
    • A similar law was passed in Bihar around the same time.

     

    Demand for Freeing Temples from Government Control

    • 1959: The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) passed its first resolution demanding that the Kashi Vishwanath Temple be returned to Hindus.
    • 1988: The Akhil Bharatiya Karyakari Mandal (ABKM) of the RSS called on state governments to hand over temples to representatives of Hindu devotees, arguing that government control was unfair and aimed at controlling temple funds.
    • 2021: The VHP passed a resolution in Faridabad demanding a central law to free temples from government control.

    Legal Position on Temple Control

    Courts have generally upheld government control over temples, although there have been arguments in favor of freeing temples.

    Key Judgments:

    • 1954 Shirur Mutt Case: The Supreme Court ruled that a law transferring control of religious institutions to another authority violates Article 26(d), which guarantees the right to manage religious property. However, the state can regulate the administration of religious or charitable institutions.
    • Ratilal Panachand Gandhi vs. The State of Bombay (1954): The Supreme Court affirmed that the right to manage religious institutions is fundamental, but the state can regulate trust properties through valid laws.
    • Pannalal Bansilal Pitti vs. State Of Andhra Pradesh (1996): The Supreme Court upheld a law abolishing hereditary rights over temple management and rejected the argument that such laws must apply equally to all religions.

    Recent Case:

    • In 2022, lawyer Ashwini Upadhyay filed a petition in the Supreme Court to free temples from government control. The SC remarked that under the current system, temples cater to broader social needs, and reversing this would return temples to their previous state as centers of wealth. Upadhyay withdrew his petition.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of Secularism?

    [2016] How the Indian concept of secularism is different from the western model of secularism? Discuss. 

  • Dadasaheb Phalke Award

    Why in the News?

    Veteran actor Mithun Chakraborty will be conferred with the 2022 Dadasaheb Phalke Award.

    Mithun Chakraborty to Receive Dadasaheb Phalke Award 

    • Mithun Chakraborty has played a wide range of roles throughout his career, from a tribal in ‘Mrigayaa’ (1976) to an action hero and a dancing star, becoming one of the most versatile actors in Indian cinema.
    • His performance in ‘Disco Dancer’ (1982) made him an international sensation, with the movie being a massive hit across Asia, then Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and other regions after Raj Kapoor.
    • He has worked in more than 350 films across multiple Indian languages, including Hindi, Bengali, Odia, Bhojpuri, Tamil, and Punjabi, demonstrating his wide-ranging influence.
    • Mithun has won three National Film Awards for his outstanding performances in films like ‘Mrigayaa’ (1976), ‘Tahader Katha’ (1992), and ‘Swami Vivekananda’ (1998).
    • He was awarded the Padma Bhushan, India’s third-highest civilian honor, in 2023, recognizing his contributions to the arts.
    • As the chairperson of the Film Studios Setting & Allied Mazdoor Union (FSSAMU) for three decades, Mithun has been actively involved in improving the welfare of film industry workers.

     

    About Dadasaheb Phalke Award

    Details
    Organized by
    • Directorate of Film Festivals, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
    • Presented by the President of India.
    First Presented 1969
    Purpose To honor individuals (filmmakers, actors, singers etc.) for their “great and outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema”
    Named After
    • Dadasaheb (Dhundiraj Govind) Phalke, “Father of Indian Cinema”.
    • He directed and produced India’s first full-length feature film, Raja Harishchandra, in 1913.
    • This landmark film is considered the starting point of the Indian cinema.
    Notable Recipients Devika Rani (1969), Prithviraj Kapoor (1971), Satyajit Ray (1985), Raj Kapoor (1987), Lata Mangeshkar (1989), Asha Bhosle (2000), Yash Chopra (2001), Rajinikanth (2019), Amitabh Bachchan (2018) , Waheeda Rehman (2021).
    Components of the Award
    • ₹1,000,000 (US$12,000) cash prize;
    • Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus) medallion, a shawl.
    Selection Criteria Awarded to individuals for their “great and outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema”.
    Selection Committee A committee consisting of eminent personalities from the Indian film industry.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] What do understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

  • Kolkata Tram

    Why in the News?

    West Bengal has announced the discontinuation of the iconic 150 year old Kolkata trams, India’s last functioning tram system.

    About Kolkata Tram

    • Introduced in 1873 in Calcutta (now Kolkata), the first trams were horse-drawn and operated along a 3.8 km route between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street.
    • In 1874, horse-drawn trams reached Bombay (now Mumbai), followed by their introduction in Nashik and Patna.
    • However, their dependency on horse labor made them unsustainable.

    Revival and Modernization of Kolkata’s Trams

    • Lord Ripon revived trams in Calcutta in 1880 by experimenting with steam locomotives.
    • While the steam-powered trams improved speed, they introduced issues like pollution, which discouraged other states from adopting this technology.
    • In 1895, Madras (now Chennai) launched the country’s first electric tramcars, reducing noise and pollution.
    • Following this, Calcutta also transitioned to electric-powered trams by 1902, with routes between Esplanade and Kidderpore, and Esplanade and Kalighat.

    Significance of Trams

    • Kolkata’s trams hold historical significance as India’s oldest running tram system, symbolizing the city’s colonial past and cultural identity.
    • They provide an environmentally friendly and affordable mode of transport, making them relevant even today.
    • As a symbol of resilience, Kolkata’s trams have survived while other cities phased them out.
    • They also serve as a unique tourist attraction, offering a nostalgic glimpse of the city.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Which of the following statements correctly explains the impact of Industrial Revolution on India during the first half of the nineteenth century?

    (a) Indian handicrafts were ruined.

    (b) Machines were introduced in the Indian textile industry in large numbers.

    (c) Railway line were laid in many parts of the country.

    (d) Heavy duties were imposed on the import of British manufactures.

  • Bhagat Singh (1907-1931)

    Why in the News?

    September 28th marks 117th birth anniversary of the legendary freedom fighter “Bhagat Singh”.

    Who was Bhagat Singh?

    Details
    Birth  September 28, 1907; Banga, Punjab (now in Pakistan)
    Family  Came from a family involved in anticolonial activities; his father Kishan Singh and uncle Ajit Singh were active freedom fighters.
    Affiliations • Hindustan Republican Association (1924)
    • Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (1928)
    • Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926)
    Revolutionary Actions • Played a key role in the Lahore Conspiracy Case (1928) by avenging Lala Lajpat Rai’s death and mistakenly killing J.P. Saunders
    • Threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929, with B.K. Dutt, to protest oppressive British laws.
    Ideologies and Principles • Advocated Marxist and socialist ideologies
    • Rejected religion in his essay Why I Am an Atheist
    • Emphasized rationalism, equality, and justice.
    Arrest and Trial
    • Arrested in 1929 for throwing a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly; later rearrested for the Lahore Conspiracy Case (murder of J.P. Saunders).
    • Jinnah opposed a 1929 Bill allowing trials in absentia, delivering a strong speech in the Central Assembly.
    Execution
    • Hanged on March 23, 1931, along with Sukhdev and Rajguru, in Lahore for his revolutionary activities.
    • Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose visited Bhagat Singh in prison.
    Literary Works
    • Bhagat Singh was fluent in Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, and English, and familiar with Sanskrit.
    • His jail notebook referenced thinkers like Karl Marx, Thomas Jefferson, Mark Twain, and others, reflecting his intellectual diversity.
    • At 17, he wrote Vishwa Prem (Universal Love), advocating for universal brotherhood and equality.
    • He urged the oppressed classes to rebel against the social order and spoke about the philosophy of revolution in his writings, such as What is Revolution? (1929).
    • In his series What is Anarchism? he described organized religion and the state as forms of mental and physical slavery.
    • He wrote about the power of love in a 1929 letter to Sukhdev, emphasizing its role in personal and political strength.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.

  • Deendayal Upadhyaya’s Birth Anniversary

    Why in the News?

    September 25 marks the 108th birth anniversary of Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya, one of the most influential thinkers of India’s right-wing movement.

    About Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968)

    Details
    Born • September 25, 1916 in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh

    • Antyodaya Diwas is observed on this day since 2014.
    Affiliations Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS)
    Political Role • One of the key leaders of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS)
    • Served as President of BJS
    Key Contributions • Founder of the Integral Humanism philosophy
    • Introduced the concept of Antyodaya for the upliftment of the poorest
    • Promoted self-reliance (Swadeshi) and decentralization of power
    Doctrine of ‘Antyodaya’ • Antyodaya means “upliftment of the last person in society.”
    • It focuses on improving the living conditions of the poorest and most marginalized sections of society.
    • Upadhyaya believed that true development can only be measured by the welfare of the weakest sections, promoting policies aimed at economic, social, and educational inclusion of these groups.
    Legacy • Antyodaya Anna Yojana and Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana inspired by his ideas

    • In 2015, NRLM was renamed Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-NRLM.
    Death February 11, 1968, under mysterious circumstances in Mughalsarai, Uttar Pradesh

  • How does the selection works at Oscar Awards?  

    Why in the News?

    India has announced its official entry for the Best International Feature Film category at the 97th Academy (Oscar) Awards, set to take place early next year.

    About the Film Federation of India (FFI)

    • The FFI is the main body representing the interests of the Indian film industry, including producers, distributors, and exhibitors.
    • It was established in 1951.
    • The FFI’s primary goal is to promote and protect the Indian film industry, both in India and internationally.
    • It plays a key role in selecting India’s official entry for the Best International Feature Film category at the Oscar Awards.

    How does the FFI make the choice?

    • Submission Process: The FFI invites filmmakers to submit their films for consideration. To be eligible, the film must:
      • Be at least 40 minutes long.
      • Have more than 50% of its dialogue in a non-English language.
      • Have had a theatrical release of at least seven days between November 1, 2023, and September 30, 2024.
    • Jury Selection: The FFI appoints a 13-member jury made up of experienced individuals from the creative field, who evaluate the films and select India’s entry.
      • The jury chairperson is nominated by the FFI and oversees the selection process.
    • Screening and Voting: The jury watches all the submissions and conducts discussions before making a final decision via voting.

    Why has the FFI come under criticism?

    • All-Male Jury: The FFI’s current jury has drawn criticism for being composed entirely of men. This led to public discussions about the absence of women on the jury, especially since India’s official entry for the 97th Oscars focuses on women’s issues.
    • Arbitrary Process: FFI’s selection process can be arbitrary, and there have been calls for greater transparency and inclusiveness in choosing films for international awards like the Oscars.

    PYQ:

    [2014] What do understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

  • Why Ambedkar and Gandhi disagreed on question of separate electorates for SC’s?

    Why in the News?

    On September 20, 1932, Mahatma Gandhi began a fast unto death in Yerawada Jail, Pune, to protest against the provision of separate electorates for Scheduled Castes.

    Gandhi vs Ambedkar on Caste

    • Gandhi’s Views on Caste: Initially orthodox, Gandhi supported social prohibitions like restrictions on inter-dining and inter-marriage but later rejected untouchability, referring to untouchables as “Harijans.” However, he did not reject the institution of caste itself, as it was tied to Hindu religious practices.
    • Ambedkar’s Radical Approach: Ambedkar believed that to truly abolish caste, one needed to attack the divine authority of the Hindu scriptures (shastras) that justified it. He argued that reforms short of rejecting the religious basis of caste were insufficient.
      • Ambedkar’s strategy was to focus on lower castes achieving political power to challenge their subjugation within the Hindu social order.

    Ambedkar’s Argument for Separate Electorates

    • Distinct Identity of Depressed Classes: Ambedkar argued that the Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes) formed a distinct group, separate from the Hindus. Despite being part of Hindu society, they did not enjoy equal treatment and were subject to systemic oppression.
    • Political Machinery for Representation: Ambedkar advocated for separate electorates with a double vote system, where Scheduled Castes would vote for their own candidates as well as in the general electorate.
    • Protection from Majority Rule: Ambedkar warned that joint electorates would allow the Hindu majority to control the election of Dalit representatives, making it impossible for lower castes to effectively protect their interests against the tyranny of the majority.

    Why Gandhi Opposed Separate Electorates

    • Integration of Lower Castes: Gandhi opposed separate electorates because he believed they would marginalize lower castes further.
      • Instead of being restricted to a limited share of seats, Gandhi thought lower castes should aim for broader participation in political leadership.
    • Fear of Dividing Hindu Society: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would divide Hindu society, further weakening it.
      • He believed this division would help the British continue their “divide and rule” policy, undermining India’s struggle for independence.
    • Strategic Concerns: The introduction of separate electorates for Scheduled Castes, in addition to those for Muslims, would fragment the Hindu political base, reducing the power and influence of upper-caste Hindu leadership.

    Culmination of the Debate: The Poona Pact

    • Gandhi’s Fast: In 1932, Gandhi went on a fast unto death to oppose separate electorates, pressuring Ambedkar to concede. Ambedkar, despite his misgivings, agreed to the Poona Pact, which provided for reserved seats for Scheduled Castes but within a joint electorate.
    • Ambedkar’s Dissatisfaction: Ambedkar was never fully satisfied with the outcome, believing the joint electorate allowed upper-caste Hindus to nominate Dalit representatives, effectively controlling their political voice.

    Conclusion: The Gandhi-Ambedkar debate on caste culminated in the Poona Pact, with Gandhi opposing separate electorates to maintain Hindu unity, while Ambedkar sought political power for lower castes. Though Ambedkar agreed, he remained dissatisfied with the compromise.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B R Ambedkar, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, had a common goal of amelioration of the downtrodden. Elucidate. (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • Who was Mary Poonen Lukose?

    Why in the News?

    100 years ago, on September 23, 1924, Mary Poonen Lukose became the first woman to join a legislative council in an Indian princely state, entering the Travancore Legislative Council.

    Who Was Mary Poonen Lukose?

    • Born on August 2, 1886, in Kerala, she became the first woman from the state to earn a medical degree, specialising in gynaecology and obstetrics.
    • Her contributions:
      • She performed the first cesarean section in Kerala before 1920, often working under challenging conditions with minimal equipment.
      • She started a midwifery training program for local women, which led to safer home births, reducing risks for mothers and babies.
      • As a member of the Travancore Legislative Council, she influenced public health policy, using her expertise to benefit the community.

    Records set by Mary Poonen Lukose

    • First woman legislator in an Indian princely state: In 1924, she became the first woman member of the Travancore Legislative Council (a predecessor to Kerala’s Legislative Assembly).
    • First woman graduate from Madras University in 1909, despite facing barriers to studying science as a woman.
    • First woman Surgeon General of Travancore, and possibly the first woman Surgeon General in the world, in 1938.
      • First woman to head the health department in Travancore, in 1924.
    • Awarded the Padma Shri in 1975 for her contributions.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during the struggle for freedom in India. Discuss. (10 marks-200 words).

    [2011] With reference to Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for

    (a) Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement
    (b) Participating in the Second Round Table Conference
    (c) Leading a contingent of Indian National Army
    (d) Assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

  • 100 Years of Harappan Civilization

    Why in the News?

    It has been 100 years since the discovery of the Harappan Civilization, announced by John Marshall on September 20, 1924.

    Harappa: Remains of a Civilization

    • The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, flourished between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE, with earlier settlements dating back to 3200 BCE.
    • The origins of this civilisation are traced back to Mehrgarh in Balochistan, which dates to 7000 BCE.
    • It is considered one of the three earliest civilizations, alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia.
    • The civilization covered over 1.5 million sq. km, stretching across modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
    • Remains of the civilization include:
      • Well-planned cities with a grid layout, intersecting streets, and fortified structures.
      • Advanced drainage systems with underground sewers and covered drains, showing a strong emphasis on hygiene.
      • Granaries, warehouses, and dockyards, indicating the presence of structured trade and food storage mechanisms.
      • The discovery of seals made of steatite, often engraved with animals and an un-deciphered script, suggesting a sophisticated administrative system.
      • Craftsmanship in pottery, bead-making, terracotta figurines, metal artefacts, and weaving.
      • Water management systems such as reservoirs, wells, and baths, indicating an advanced understanding of hydraulic engineering.

    The Discoverers:

    • Two ASI archaeologists were credited with the discovery:
      • Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921-22, discovering seals, pottery, and beads.
      • Rakhal Das Banerji began excavating Mohenjo-daro in 1922, finding similar items such as seals and copper objects.
    • John Marshall noticed the similarity between the objects found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, despite the sites being 640 km apart.

    About the Mohenjo-daro Site:

    • Mohenjo-daro is one of the largest cities of the Harappan Civilization, located in the Sindh province of Pakistan, discovered in 1922 by Rakhal Das Banerji.
    • The city represents one of the finest examples of ancient urban planning:
      • Great Bath: A large, centrally located structure thought to be used for ritual bathing or religious ceremonies. It is considered one of the earliest public water tanks in history.
      • Granaries: Massive storage facilities near the citadel suggest an organized system of storing food for the community.
      • Citadel and Lower Town: The city was divided into a raised citadel for the ruling elite and a lower town for common people. Both areas had well-planned streets and residential complexes.
      • Drainage Systems: Mohenjo-daro featured covered drainage systems with individual toilets connected to the drainage network, showcasing an impressive public sanitation system.
      • Residential Buildings: Homes were built from uniform mud bricks, with courtyards and bathrooms, and were often multi-storied. The use of standardised brick sizes (ratio 1:2:4) and cubic weights showed their high degree of organisation.
    • Artefacts found at Mohenjo-daro include:
      • Seals with animal motifs and the un-deciphered Harappan script, believed to have been used for administrative or trade purposes.
      • Pottery and tools made of bronze and copper.
      • Terracotta figurines, jewellery, and toys that reflect a highly developed artistic culture.
      • Weights and measures based on a uniform standard, indicating the use of a standardized economic system.
    • The city’s streets were aligned north-south and east-west, cutting at right angles, allowing for efficient transportation, including bullock carts.
    • Mohenjo-daro is believed to have had trade links with Mesopotamia, as suggested by artefacts with Mesopotamian connections.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which of the following characterizes/characterize the people of Indus Valley Civilization?

    1. They possessed great palaces and temples.

    2. They worshipped both male and female deities.

    3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

    Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below.

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1, 2 and 3

    (d) None of the statements given above is correct