💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (August Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Subject: History

  • The ‘largest’ Hajj Pilgrimage in history begins

    hajj

    Central Idea

    • Historic pilgrimage in Mecca: More than two million Muslims are expected to participate in the annual Hajj pilgrimage, making it a significant religious event.
    • Participation of over two million Muslims: The Hajj pilgrimage attracts a massive gathering of Muslims from various countries, all converging in Mecca to fulfill their religious obligations.

    What is Hajj Yatra?

    • Religious obligation: Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims who possess the physical ability and financial means to undertake the pilgrimage.
    • Purpose: Cleanse sins and foster a closer connection with God: The Hajj pilgrimage is seen as a means of purifying oneself from sins and seeking spiritual growth through a profound connection with Allah.
    • Dates: 8th to 13th of Dhu al-Hijjah in the Muslim calendar: The Hajj pilgrimage takes place during specific dates in the final month of the Islamic lunar calendar, known as Dhu al-Hijjah.
    • Variations in date: Since the Islamic lunar calendar is shorter than the Gregorian calendar, the dates of the Hajj pilgrimage vary from year to year.

    Historical Background

    • Tracing back to Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham): The origins of the Hajj pilgrimage can be traced back to the time of Prophet Ibrahim, who was instructed by Allah to build the Kaaba in Mecca, establishing its significance as a sacred site.
    • Commanded by Allah to build the Kaaba in Mecca: Prophet Ibrahim received a divine command to construct the Kaaba, a cubic-shaped structure considered the most sacred site in Islam, laying the foundation for the Hajj pilgrimage.
    • Gradual dilution of monotheistic nature: Over time, the original monotheistic essence of the Hajj pilgrimage was influenced by various cultural practices and customs, deviating from its original purpose.
    • Re-consecration by Prophet Muhammad in 630 AD: Prophet Muhammad, during the conquest of Mecca, reinstated the monotheistic principles of the Hajj pilgrimage, cleansing it from polytheistic elements and restoring its true significance.

    Rituals and Ceremonies

    • State of ihram: Symbolizing spiritual purity and detachment: Pilgrims enter a state of ihram, a state of ritual consecration, by wearing simple white garments, signifying purity and detachment from worldly distractions.
    • Tawaf ritual: Circling the Kaaba seven times while reciting prayers: Pilgrims perform the tawaf, which involves circling the Kaaba seven times in a counterclockwise direction, accompanied by recitation of specific prayers and supplications.
    • Sa’i: Reenacting Hagar’s search for water for her son Ismail: Pilgrims engage in sa’i, walking between the hills of Safa and Marwah, replicating the journey of Hagar, the wife of Prophet Ibrahim, in her search for water for her son Ismail.
    • Mount Arafat: Seeking forgiveness for sins: Pilgrims gather at the plains of Mount Arafat, spending the day in prayer and reflection, seeking forgiveness for their sins and supplicating to Allah for blessings and mercy.
    • Jamarah ritual: Symbolically stoning the devil in the valley of Mina: Pilgrims engage in the symbolic stoning of pillars representing Satan, casting pebbles as a symbolic act of resistance against evil temptations and following the example of Prophet Ibrahim.
    • Final circling of the Kaaba and symbolic hair removal: The pilgrimage concludes with a final circumambulation of the Kaaba and the symbolic removal of a lock of hair, symbolizing the completion of the Hajj journey.

    Significance of the Event

    • Logistical marvel: The Hajj pilgrimage is a massive logistical undertaking, with Saudi Arabia’s Ministry of Hajj and Umrah organizing facilities and services to accommodate the millions of pilgrims who arrive in Mecca.
    • Quotas based on Muslim population and diplomatic relationships: Quotas are allocated to each country based on factors such as the size of their Muslim population and diplomatic relationships with Saudi Arabia.
    • Once in life experience: Participating in the Hajj pilgrimage requires significant financial resources, and many pilgrims save for years to afford the associated costs. They often rely on authorized travel agents who arrange travel, lodging, and food arrangements.

    Significance for Saudi Arabia

    • Pride and legitimacy: Organizing the Hajj pilgrimage gives Saudi Arabia a sense of pride and legitimacy, as it serves as the custodian of the two holiest sites in Islam, Mecca and Medina.
    • Control over sacred mosques: Saudi Arabia’s control over the sacred mosques in Mecca and Medina enhances its position as a leader in the Islamic world and grants the country religious influence.
    • Major revenue source: The Hajj pilgrimage serves as a major source of revenue for Saudi Arabia. The influx of pilgrims contributes billions of dollars to the country’s economy through various channels, such as transportation, accommodation, food services, and religious tourism.
    • Huge revenues: In recent years, Hajj-related revenues have reached significant levels, with estimates surpassing $150 billion in 2022 alone, making it a crucial economic driver for Saudi Arabia.

    Organizing the Pilgrimage: Hajj Quotas

    • Logistical challenge for Saudi Arabia: Organizing the Hajj pilgrimage poses a monumental logistical challenge for Saudi Arabia due to the immense scale of the event and the need to ensure the well-being and safety of millions of pilgrims.
    • Quotas determined by country-wise allocations: Quotas, or the number of pilgrims allowed from each country, are determined through country-wise allocations, taking into account various factors such as the size of the Muslim population in each country.
    • Allocations based on population: The allocation of quotas is influenced by factors such as the size of the Muslim population and an agreement reached in 1987 among member states of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).
    • Diplomatic considerations: Diplomatic considerations, such as bilateral relations and negotiations between Saudi Arabia and other countries, also play a role in determining the quotas allocated to each country.

    India’s Hajj Quota

    • Record number of 175,025 Indian pilgrims in Hajj 2023: India, with the world’s largest Muslim population, has historically received a significant quota for the Hajj pilgrimage.
    • Involvement of the Ministry of Minority Affairs and HCoI: The Ministry of Minority Affairs, along with the Haj Committee of India (HCoI), plays a crucial role in managing and coordinating the Hajj pilgrimage for Indian pilgrims.
    • 70% quota allocation to HCoI, 30% to private operators: The HCoI is allocated 70% of India’s Hajj quota, allowing them to organize and oversee a significant portion of the pilgrimage. The remaining 30% is allocated to private operators who provide services and packages for Indian pilgrims.
    • Abolition of the discretionary quota: Previously, there was a ‘Government discretionary quota’ that reserved 500 slots for government allocation. However, this quota was abolished in January, returning those seats to the general pool for distribution among the pilgrims.
    • Draw of lots conducted by states for available slots: In cases where the number of applicants exceeds the available slots, states in India conduct a draw of lots to determine which individuals will be able to undertake the Hajj pilgrimage.

    Conclusion

    • The Hajj pilgrimage holds immense religious and historical significance for Muslims.
    • It represents a journey of faith, unity, and spiritual renewal.
    • Saudi Arabia’s role in organizing the Hajj provides the country with pride, legitimacy, and economic benefits.

  • Who was Rani Durgavati?

    rani durgavati

    Central Idea

    • The recent launch of the Rani Durgavati Gaurav Yatra by the Madhya Pradesh government has sparked interest in the life and legacy of Rani Durgavati.
    • As a symbol of India’s self-determination and bravery, Rani Durgavati’s story has gained prominence in political discourse, particularly in relation to tribal outreach.

    Who was Rani Durgavati?

    • Birth and lineage: Rani Durgavati was born in 1524 in the Chandela dynasty in present-day Uttar Pradesh, near the border with Madhya Pradesh. Her father was Raja Salbahan of Ratha and Mahoba, known for the famous Khajuraho temples.
    • Marriage and widowhood: She married Dalpat Shah, the son of Gond King Sangram Shah of the kingdom of Garha-Katanga. However, she was widowed a few years later and took charge of ruling the kingdom.

    Mughal Attack on Garha-Katanga

    • Early Mughal expansion: During the mid-16th century, Akbar led the Mughal Empire’s expansion in India. Rani Durgavati fought against Baz Bahadur, the Sultan of Malwa, who was eventually defeated by Akbar. However, conflicts between the two states continued.
    • Rani Durgavati’s leadership: Rani Durgavati managed the affairs of the kingdom for 16 years, maintaining trade relations and undertaking public works. She was admired for her beauty, grace, courage, and prosperity.

    Battle and Sacrifice

    • Mughal invasion: The Mughal governor Asaf Khan launched an attack on Garha-Katanga, drawn by tales of Rani Durgavati’s bravery and prowess.
    • Her strategy: She positioned her troops in a challenging forested area called Narhi. Although she won the initial battle, the Mughals fortified their position.
    • Sacrifice and defeat: During the prolonged fighting, Rani Durgavati was struck by arrows and, rather than surrendering, is believed to have stabbed herself with her dagger. Her son also lost his life. Asaf Khan consolidated his victory and later returned the kingdom to a member of the Gond dynasty.

    Legacy and Present-day Politics

    • Political symbolism: Rani Durgavati is hailed as a patriotic ruler and defender of culture, becoming a symbol of pride and honor. .
    • Tribal outreach: The renaming of public spaces after tribal leaders reflect efforts to engage with tribal communities, which constitute a significant population in Madhya Pradesh.

  • Rath Yatra in Puri

    rath yatra puri

    Central Idea

    • The Rath Yatra (Chariot Procession), a grand festival held in Puri, Odisha, attracts millions of visitors from around the world.
    • This article explores the significance and key elements of the Rath Yatra Festival.

    What is Rath Yatra?

    rath yatra puri

    • Divine pilgrimage: According to mythology, Lord Jagannath embarks on a nine-day sojourn along with his siblings to his birthplace, the Gundicha Temple.
    • The idols’ stay: The deities, Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra, and Devi Subhadra, reside at the Gundicha Temple until the “Bahuda Yatra” (returning car festival) on June 28.
    • Procession: The Rath Yatra takes place on the second day of the Odia month of Ashadha Shukla Tithi. It involves a procession of the deities from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha Temple.

    Key attractions

    • Decorated chariots: The three enormous chariots, Taladhwaja Rath for Lord Balabhadra, Darpadalan Rath for Goddess Subhadra, and Nandighosa Rath for Lord Jagannath, are crafted with specific colors, dimensions, wooden horses, guardian deities, and charioteers. Skilled artisans use traditional techniques to build these chariots.
    • Chhera Panhara Ritual: Before the chariots are pulled, the scion of the erstwhile Puri royal family performs the Chhera Panhara ritual. The king sweeps the chariot floors with a golden broom, emphasizing the dignity of labor and equality before the Lord.
    • Present pulling: Puri’s (ceremonial) king, Gajapati Dibyasingha Deb, has been performing the Chhera Panhara ritual since 1971, highlighting the long-standing tradition.

    Significance of the festival

    • Devotee participation: The Rath Yatra draws a massive crowd, including foreigners, who flock to witness the grand spectacle.
    • Touching the chariot ropes: Devotees strive to touch the ropes of the chariots, as it is believed that the Lord bestows blessings upon those who participate in pulling the chariots.

    Return Festival: Bahuda Yatra and Suna Besha

    • Bahuda Yatra: The return festival takes place on Ashadha Shukla Dasami. The deities are offered a special cake called “Poda Pitha” at the Mausimaa Temple before their journey back to the Jagannath Temple.
    • Suna Besha: Following the Bahuda Yatra, the deities are adorned with gold ornaments during the Suna Besha ceremony. Devotees flock to witness this spectacle, where the lords are beautifully decorated with gold.
    • Homecoming: Niladri Bije marks the end of the Rath Yatra and symbolizes the homecoming of the deities to the Jagannath Temple.
    • Offering to Goddess Laxmi: Devotees offer Rasagola, a sweet dish made of cheese, to appease Goddess Laxmi on behalf of Lord Jagannath. This ritual seeks to pacify the goddess, who is believed to be upset for not being taken on the chariots.

    Also read:

    Places in news: Jagannath Puri Temple

  • PM gifts Upanishads to Joe Bide

    upanishad

    Central Idea

    • PM Modi presented the US President Joe Biden with a number of gifts, including a first edition print of the book The Ten Principal Upanishads from 1937.

    Ten Principal Upanishads

    • The Ten Principal Upanishads is translated from Sanskrit by Shri Purohit Swami, a scholar of Hindu scripture, and Irish poet WB Yeats.
    • It is considered to be one of the best translations of the Upanishads, some of the most important Hindu religious texts.
    • Written in the mid-1930s, the book was a product of Yeats’ desire to create a translation which is true to the original text while still being accessible for the layperson.

    Two categories of Hindu scriptures

    There are broadly two categories of Hindu sacred texts: Shruti (loosely translated as “the revealed”) and Smriti (“the remembered”).

    [I] Shruti

    • The Shruti category is considered to be the most authoritative and consists of the four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva) and accompanying texts.
    • These include Brahmanas (ritual texts), Aranyakas (“forest” or “wilderness” texts), and Upanishads (philosophical texts).

    [II] Smruti

    • The Smruti category of Hindu scriptures is less authoritative – in many ways they are considered to be derived from the first – but more popularly known.
    • These include the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, Dharmashastras, Puranas and all other post-Vedic scriptures.

    What are the Upanishads?

    • The Upanishads, also known as the Vedanta – as they signal the end of the total Veda – speculate about the ontological connection between humanity and the cosmos.
    • They serve as foundational texts in many traditions of Hindu theology and have hence attracted far more attention than the Vedas themselves.
    • Dated to roughly 800-500 BC, the Upanishads discuss concepts such as transmigration, which have today become central to Hindu tradition.
    • Upanishads signify texts that were traditionally transmitted in intimate, teacher-student settings, imparting profound knowledge and spiritual insights.

    (A) Spiritual Essence

    • The Upanishads form the philosophical portion of the Vedic scriptures known as the Vedanta.
    • They explore the metaphysical and mystical aspects of existence, aiming to unravel the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate truth.

    (B) Origins

    • The Upanishads were composed between 800-500 BC, following the earlier Vedic texts.
    • Various sages, seers, and scholars authored the Upanishads, resulting in a rich diversity of philosophical perspectives.

    (C) Themes and Subjects

    • The Upanishads delve into profound concepts, such as the nature of the self (atman), the ultimate reality (brahman) (NOT Brahmin), and the relationship between the two.
    • They explore metaphysical inquiries, the nature of existence, the concept of karma, the path to liberation (moksha), and the interconnectedness of all beings.

    Key Upanishads and Teachings 

    • While there are over 200 Upanishads, a set of principal Upanishads is considered the most significant and influential.
    • There are ten main (or principal) Upanishads:
    1. Esha
    2. Kena
    3. Katha
    4. Prashna
    5. Mundaka
    6. Mandukya
    7. Taittiriya
    8. Aitareya
    9. Chandogya
    10. Brihadaranyaka

    WB Yeats and his translation of Upanishads

    (A) Who was WB Yeats? 

    • WB Yeats (1865-1939) was born in Ireland and is regarded as one of the most influential figures in modern English literature.
    • He was a key figure in the Irish Literary Revival, which sought to promote Irish culture, folklore, and independence.

    (B) His Interest in the Upanishads

    • Yeats’ interest in Indian culture and philosophy predates his encounter with the Upanishads.
    • In 1885, he met Mohini Chatterjee, a prominent figure in Bengal’s Theosophical circles, who visited Dublin. This meeting sparked Yeats’ early engagement with Indian themes in his poetry.

    (C) Friendship with Rabindranath Tagore:

    • Yeats developed a close friendship with Rabindranath Tagore, the renowned Indian poet, philosopher, and Nobel laureate.
    • In 1912, they met in London, where Tagore introduced Yeats to his translated work, including Gitanjali.

    (D) Introduction to the Upanishads:

    • William Rothenstein, a photographer, sent Yeats the manuscripts of Tagore’s partial translation of the Upanishads.
    • Impressed by their spiritual depth and cultural significance, Yeats became intrigued by the Upanishads’ teachings.
    • Disappointed with the available English translations of the Upanishads, Yeats sought to create a translation that was both true to the original text and accessible to a wider audience.
    • He collaborated with Sanskrit scholar Shri Purohit Swami, who helped him translate the Upanishads with an emphasis on clarity and understanding.

    Back2Basics: Key Verses from Upanishads

    Verse Source Interpretation
    “Om Asato ma sadgamaya…” Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28 Lead me from the unreal to the real, from darkness to light, from death to immortality.
    “Aham Brahmasmi” Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 I am Brahman (NOT Brahmin).
    “Tat Tvam Asi” Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 That thou art.
    “Ayam Atma Brahma” Mandukya Upanishad 1.2 This self is Brahman.
    “Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma” Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 All this is Brahman.
    “Neti, neti” Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.6 Not this, not this.
    “Satyam jnanam anantam brahma” Taittiriya Upanishad 2.1.3 Brahman is truth, knowledge, and infinite.
    “Yato vacho nivartante, aprapya manasa saha” Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.1 Whence words turn away, along with the mind, unable to reach it.

     

  • Orvakallu Rock Paintings in AP

    rock cave

    Central Idea

    • A recent discovery by D. Kanna Babu, former Superintending Archaeologist, reveals a Mesolithic period rock painting in Orvakallu village, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.
    • The painting depicts a person tilling land, shedding light on the social life and culture of the ancient inhabitants.

    Orvakallu Rock Paintings

    rock cave

    • The researchers while conducting a survey of the lower River Krishna Valley, identified a new prehistoric rock painting in Orvakallu.
    • The painting was found on the walls and ceiling of natural rock shelters on a hillock.
    • The site consists of five caves, two of which exhibit distinct depictions of rock paintings from the Mesolithic Age (approximately 5000 BC).

    Composition and Condition of the Paintings

    • The paintings were created using natural white kaolin and red ochre pigments.
    • The passage of time and exposure to air and wind have significantly damaged most of the paintings.
    • Despite the deterioration, some sketches and outlines remain visible for visitors.

    Significance of the Find

    • The discovery sheds light on the social life and culture of the people who inhabited the area during the Mesolithic Age.
    • One painting depicts a man catching a wild goat while holding a hooklike implement.
    • Another painting portrays two couples with raised hands, accompanied by a child.
    • Notably, a painted figure shows a man holding a plough, suggesting a semisettled life pattern and agricultural practices.

    Understanding the Painted Figures

    • The depiction of a man tilling land indicates the cultivation of crops and a semi-settled lifestyle.
    • The paintings offer valuable insights into the daily activities, occupations, and interactions with the environment of the ancient community.

    Back2Basics:

    Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age
    Time Period 2.6 million  10,000 BCE 10,000  6,000 BCE 6,000  2,000 BCE 3,300  1,200 BCE 1,200  500 BCE
    Characteristics Use of crude stone tools Transition from hunter-gatherer to settled lifestyle Agriculture and farming practices become more prominent Introduction of bronze, a metal alloy made of copper and tin Transition from bronze to iron as the dominant metal
    Animals in use Hunter gatherer lifestyle Domestication of plants and animals Domestication of animals Advanced metallurgical techniques Increased trade and warfare
    Economy Nomadic existence Emergence of early agriculture and semi-permanent settlements Development of pottery and weaving techniques Rise of complex societies and city-states Emergence of empires and large scale political systems
    Artistic Development Cave paintings and engravings Advanced stone tools, including micro-liths Establishment of permanent settlements and early civilizations Development of writing systems and recorded history Flourishing of art, literature, and technology

     

  • In news: Prime Ministers Museum and Library Society

    Central Idea

    • The decision to rename the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) Society has ignited a political controversy.
    • The institution will now be known as the ‘Prime Ministers Museum and Library Society’.
    • The controversy reflects the ongoing debate surrounding dynastic politics in India.

    About the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) (erstwhile)

    • NMML in New Delhi, is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Culture.
    • It is a leading resource center on India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.
    • Established in 1964, it houses extensive archives, including Mahatma Gandhi’s writings and private papers of prominent figures like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, C. Rajagopalachari, and Sarojini Naidu.
    • It is located in the majestic Teen Murti House, the official residence of the first Prime Minister of India.
    • It has four major constituents, namely, a Memorial Museum, a library on modern India, a Centre for Contemporary Studies and the Nehru Planetarium.

    Pradhanmantri Sangrahalaya (the PM’s Museum)

    • In April 2022, the NMML inaugurated the Museum as a new addition to the institution.
    • It is a tribute to every Prime Minister of India since Independence, showcasing their contributions to the nation’s development over the past 75 years.

    Why rename it now?

    • The meeting acknowledged the contributions of all past and present Prime Ministers and expressed the mission of the Society to preserve India’s democratic journey and legacy.
    • It was felt that renaming the institution would better align with this purpose.

  • Festivals in news: Pandharpur Wari

    Pandharpur Wari

    The Sant Tukaram and Sant Dyaneshwar Palkhi processions started their three-week-long journeys from the temple towns of Dehu and Alandi in Pune.

    Pandharpur Wari

    Pandharpur wari
    The deities are said to be shifted to Pandharpur right away from Vitthala Temple, Hampi (Karnataka) to avoid demolition.
    • Tradition: The Wari tradition is an 800-year-old pilgrimage in Maharashtra, where devotees, known as Warkaris, undertake a foot journey to the Vithoba temple (Incarnation of Vishnu) in Pandharpur.
    • Largest walking event: The event is said to be one of the world’s largest and oldest movements where people gather on one day each year and walk a distance of around 250 km.
    • Guinness Record: The Wari has been classified by the World Book of Records as “one of the most visited places in a day”
    • Essence of Wakari Panth: The Wari is a ritualistic practice and a distinctive part of Maharashtrian culture, representing the essence of the Wakari Panth, which is a sect within the Bhakti tradition.
    • Four Processions: The Wari takes place in four months – Chaitra, Ashadh, Kartik, and Magh. The Ashadhi Ekadashi Wari is the most popular and significant among these processions.

    Historical Evolution

    • Changed over time: Over the years, the Wari procession has evolved with changing practices, associated legends, and unique systems of organization and management.
    • Influence of Sant Dyaneshwar: The Wari tradition can be traced back to Sant Dyaneshwar, the father of Sant Dyaneshwar, who played a pivotal role in promoting the pilgrimage to Pandharpur.
    • Legacy of Sant Namdev: Sant Namdev (whose verses find mention in Guru Granth Sahib), a contemporary of Sant Dyaneshwar, also followed the tradition and composed devotional compositions expressing his devotion to Lord Vitthala.

    Rituals and Cultural Aspects

    • Dindi and Musical Fervor: Dindis, comprising groups of devotees, accompany the palkis during the Wari, singing, chanting, and dancing. Musical instruments like the veena and mridangam enhance the devotional fervor.
    • Seva Dindis and Social Initiatives: Seva Dindis perform selfless service along the Wari route, including annadana (donation of food), medical assistance, and rural infrastructure development.
    • Social Messaging and Initiatives: The Wari has been utilized as a platform for social messaging and initiatives such as promoting cleanliness through the ‘Nirmal Wari’ campaign and women-centric drives like ‘Wari Nari Shakti’ focusing on menstrual hygiene.

    Try this PYQ:

    Consider the following pairs:

    Traditions Communities

    1. Chaliha Sahib Festival — Sindhis
    2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra — Gonds
    3. Wari-Warkari — Santhals

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 3

    (d) None of the above

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”uwlqiz3dsn” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

  • Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar to be renamed Ahilyanagar

    ahmad ahilya

    Central Idea

    • Government decision: Ahmednagar district was renamed after Punyashlok Ahilya Devi Holkar.
    • Support from officials: Government officials express gratitude and believe it enhances district honour.
    • Previous discussions: Maharashtra Education Minister planned to rename the city as ‘Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Nagar’.

    Origin and History of Ahmednagar

    • Ancient references: Ahmednagar was mentioned in reference to Mauryan Emperor Ashok (240 BC).
    • Rule of prominent kingdoms: Rashtrakuta Dynasty, Western Chalukyas, and Delhi Sultanate.
    • Emergence of Ahmednagar: Revolt led to the establishment of Bahmani kingdom, with Ahmednagar as one of the five independent kingdoms.

    Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah and Ahmednagar

    • PM of Bahmani Sultanate: Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah assumed the position in 1486.
    • Victory and city foundation: Defeated the king of Bahmani kingdom and founded Ahmednagar in 1494.
    • Unifying communities: Gained loyalty of Muslims, Maratha peasants, and warriors.

    Ahilyabai Holkar: Early Life and Marriage

    • Remarkable upbringing: Ahilyabai born in Chondi village, received rare education.
    • Marriage to Khande Rao: Malhar Rao Holkar arranged the marriage after being impressed by Ahilyabai’s devotion.

    Administration and Temple-building

    • Assumption of power: Ahilyabai took control of Malwa after her husband’s death in 1754.
    • Effective governance: Excelling in administration and military strategies under her father-in-law’s guidance.
    • Temple restoration: Notable efforts in restoring Hindu temples, earning respect as a capable ruler.

    Legacy of Ahilyabai Holkar

    • Recognizing achievements: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s inauguration of Samudra Darshan Path and Somnath Exhibition Gallery.
    • Symbol of inspiration: Somnath temple built by Ahilyabai Holkar in 1783, representing triumph of truth and faith.

     

    Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your personal mentor for UPSC 2024  

  • Delhi’s Ancient Secrets: Recent Excavations at Purana Qila

    purana qila

    Central Idea

    • Delhi’s Purana Qila, also known as the Old Fort, is a historic site with a rich and diverse past.
    • Recent excavations have shed light on its continuous history since the pre-Mauryan era.

    About Purana Qila

    • The origins of Purana Qila date back to antiquity, with the exact foundation period unknown.
    • It was later rebuilt by Sher Shah Suri and Mughal emperor Humayun.
    • The fort holds immense cultural and historical importance, and many believe it to be the site of Indraprastha mentioned in the Mahabharata.
    • The fort, believed to be the location of the ancient city of Indraprastha, showcases architectural remnants from various periods, including the Mughal and Rajput eras.

    Architectural marvels at Purana Qila

    • Purana Qila’s architectural features include walls that rise to a height of 18 meters, spanning approximately 1.5 kilometers.
    • It boasts three arched gateways, including the Bara Darwaza, the south gate (Humayun Gate), and the Talaqi Gate.
    • The fort’s Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque, built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541, showcases pre-Mughal architecture with its pointed arches and elegant prayer niches.
    • The Sher Mandal, a double-storeyed octagonal tower, served as Humayun’s private observatory and library.
    • It features decorative plaster-work and remnants of stone shelving for books.

    Recent excavation discoveries

    • Excavations have uncovered significant artifacts, including shards of Painted Gray Ware pottery dating from 1200 BC to 600 BC, indicating the pre-Mauryan period.
    • Other discoveries include a 900-year-old Vaikuntha Vishnu from the Rajput period, a terracotta plaque of Goddess Gaja Lakshmi from the Gupta period, and a 2,500-year-old terracotta ring well from the Mauryan period.
    • Numerous beads, seals, copper coins, and a bone needle have also been found, highlighting the site’s role as a center for trade activities.

    Cultural chronology and preservation

    • The ongoing excavation aims to establish a complete chronology of the site, spanning different historical periods from the Kushan to the Mughal era.
    • The remains of Purana Qila will be preserved, conserved, and transformed into an open-air museum to showcase the rich historical legacy of Delhi.
    • The excavated artifacts will also be displayed to delegates attending the G-20 summit, further promoting the cultural heritage of the site.

     

  • Parliamentary Institutions in Ancient India

    parliament

    Central Idea

    • The construction and history of the Indian Parliament building serve as a reminder of India’s rich democratic traditions.
    • Dr BR Ambedkar, the Chairman of the Drafting Committee for the Indian Constitution, highlighted the presence of democratic aspects in Indian history that predate Western influence.

    Democratic Traditions in Ancient India

    • Ambedkar had challenged the notion that India’s parliamentary procedures were borrowed from European countries.
    • Ambedkar referred to the Vinay–pitaka, a Theravada Buddhist scripture, as evidence of existing democratic procedures in India.
    • The scripture regulated meetings of the Bhikkhus Sangh (monks) and included rules for debates, motions, and voting through a secret ballot system.

    Comparison with Western Democracies

    • Ambedkar acknowledged the importance of contributions made by Western democracies in moving away from autocracy and religious dominance.
    • He highlighted the separation of Church and State in Western societies and the transition to secular laws created by the people rather than divine or religious authorities.

    Caution against Failure to Address Defects

    • Ambedkar pointed out the tendency of ancient societies to neglect repairing their own defects, leading to their decay.
    • He criticized the Indian society’s reliance on divine laws established by figures like Manu and Yajnavalkya, which hindered the ability to address societal issues.

    Conclusion

    • While acknowledging India’s rich democratic history, it is essential to continue building and strengthening democratic institutions to address the evolving needs and challenges of society.
    • This includes fostering an introspective approach, embracing inclusive governance, and upholding the principles of secularism, equality, and social justice.

    Back2Basics: Tripitaka

    • The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon, is a collection of sacred Buddhist scriptures that form the foundational texts of the Theravada Buddhist tradition.
    • It is divided into three sections, known as the Tripitaka, which literally means “Three Baskets.”

    History and significance

    • The Tripitaka was orally transmitted from the time of Gautama Buddha in the 5th century BCE until it was eventually written down in the 1st century BCE.
    • It holds immense historical and religious significance as it contains the teachings, discourses, rules, and guidelines given by the Buddha and his prominent disciples.

    Composition of the Tripitaka:

    (1) Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline):

    • Comprises the rules and guidelines for monastic discipline in the Buddhist community.
    • Provides detailed instructions on the conduct and behavior expected from monks and nuns.
    • Covers various aspects, including ethical guidelines, disciplinary codes, and procedures for resolving disputes.
    • Offers insights into the monastic life, the organization of the Sangha (monastic community), and the role of the monastic code in maintaining harmony and ethical conduct.

    (2) Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses):

    • Contains the discourses and teachings delivered by Gautama Buddha and his close disciples.
    • Includes a vast collection of discourses covering a wide range of topics, such as ethics, meditation, philosophy, and social issues.
    • Consists of individual suttas (discourses) grouped into different collections or Nikayas, such as the Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (Middle-Length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourses), and Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Discourses).
    • Presents the Buddha’s profound teachings on the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, dependent origination, and other core concepts of Buddhism.

    (3) Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings):

    • Provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of Buddhist philosophy and psychology.
    • Explores the nature of mind, consciousness, and reality in intricate detail.
    • Presents the teachings in a more technical and analytical manner, offering an advanced understanding of Buddhist concepts.
    • Divided into seven books, known as the Abhidhamma books, which delve into topics such as consciousness, mental factors, elements, and the path to liberation.
    • Offers a deep exploration of the ultimate nature of existence and the workings of the mind.

    Features and Characteristics

    • Authenticity and Authority: The Tripitaka is regarded as the most authoritative and authentic collection of Buddhist scriptures in the Theravada tradition.
    • Canonical Language: The texts are primarily written in Pali, an ancient Indian language close to the language spoken during the Buddha’s time.
    • Extensive Coverage: The Tripitaka covers a wide range of topics, offering comprehensive guidance for practitioners in various aspects of life.
    • Preservation of Early Buddhist Teachings: The Tripitaka is believed to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha, providing insights into his wisdom and teachings.

     

    Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your personal mentor for UPSC 2024