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Subject: International Relations

  • Gabon Seeks IMF Loan to Stabilise Economy

    Why in the News

    Gabon is negotiating with the International Monetary Fund for a new loan programme to stabilise its finances after political instability and economic challenges.

    Background of the Crisis

    • Gabon has faced political instability including: A military coup, A contentious election and Four Finance Ministers in three years
    • This instability has weakened fiscal management and reduced investor confidence.

    Purpose of IMF Assistance

    • Gabon wants an IMF programme to:
      • Stabilise public finances
      • Improve transparency and fiscal discipline
      • Unlock international funding and investor capital
      • An IMF programme often acts as a signal of credibility for global investors.

    Regional Impact

    • Gabon is part of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community.
      • Several CEMAC countries are also considering IMF assistance due to a regional funding crunch.
      • Therefore, Gabon’s IMF programme could influence financial stability across the region.

    Challenges to Securing the Loan

    • Experts highlight several concerns:
      • Debt transparency issues
      • Weak availability of economic data
      • Need for difficult fiscal reforms
      • Government’s expansionary fiscal policies
    • Gabon’s previous IMF programme (approved in 2021) went off-track after one year, increasing scepticism.
    [2022] “Rapid Financing Instrument” and “Rapid Credit Facility” are related to the provisions of lending by which one of the following? (a) Asian Development Bank (b) International Monetary Fund (c) United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative (d) World Bank

  • India Looks to New Gas Sources to Ease LPG Shortage

    Why in the News

    Amid supply disruptions caused by the West Asia conflict, officials say India is turning to new sources of natural gas such as the United States and Norway to address the current shortage of cooking gas (LPG).

    Key Developments

    • India is facing a temporary shortage of LPG and LNG supplies.
    • The government has increased domestic LPG production by about 10%.
    • Oil refineries have been directed to prioritise propane and butane for LPG production.
      • This directive was issued by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.

    Diversifying Gas Imports

    • India is exploring imports from: United States and Norway
    • Earlier, a major share of LNG imports came from Qatar.

    Price Changes

    • Earlier LNG price: $6–8 per MMBtu
    • Current price: around $15 per MMBtu
    • At higher prices, imports from distant suppliers become economically viable despite longer shipping distances.

    Supply Challenges

    • Shipping LNG from the U.S. or Norway can take about two months.
    • This may cause a short-term supply gap before new cargoes arrive.
    • However, officials expect the shortage to be temporary.

    Government Priority

    • The government has prioritised domestic LPG supply for households over commercial users.
    • To address concerns of hotels and restaurants, a committee of oil marketing companies (OMCs) has been set up to review requests for commercial LPG supplies.

    Key Terms

    • LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
      • Mainly composed of propane and butane.
      • Used widely as cooking fuel in households.
    • LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas): Natural gas (mostly methane) cooled to −160°C to transport it in liquid form.

    Significance for India

    • India imports a large share of its energy requirements.
    • Disruptions in West Asia affect fuel supply, prices, and energy security.
    • Diversifying suppliers helps reduce dependence on a single region.
    [2012] In India the overall Index of Industrial Production, the Indices of Eight Core Industries have combined weight of 37.90%. Which of the following are among those Eight Core Industries? 1. Cement 2. Fertilizers 3. Natural Gas 4. Refinery products 5. Textiles Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 5 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • [10th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: The Iran war intensifies India’s strategic challenge

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?Linkage: The Iran war and broader West Asian instability directly affect India’s energy security, diaspora safety, and strategic balancing between major powers. The article reflects the same theme, how geopolitical conflicts involving Iran reshape India’s foreign policy choices and regional diplomacy.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The escalating conflict involving Iran, Israel, and the United States represents a major geopolitical turning point in West Asia. Unlike previous limited confrontations, the current escalation reflects an attempt to reshape the ideological, military, and strategic balance of the region. For India, which maintains deep economic, diaspora, and energy ties with Gulf states, the crisis introduces complex strategic dilemmas. The conflict has implications for regional stability, energy security, maritime trade routes such as the Strait of Hormuz, and the evolving power rivalry between the United States, China, and Russia.

    Why is the conflict being framed as an attempt to eliminate Iran’s ideological influence?

    1. Ideological confrontation: Targets the ideological framework that drives the Iranian regime’s regional strategy rather than merely its nuclear capability.
    2. Regime change objective: Seeks weakening of the political order in Iran rather than only military deterrence.
    3. Proxy warfare network: Iran supports non-state actors such as Hezbollah, Hamas, and the Houthis, expanding its influence across Lebanon, Gaza, and Yemen.
    4. Regional destabilisation: Iranian proxies have influenced political processes in Lebanon and Yemen, demonstrating Tehran’s ability to shape regional politics indirectly.

    How has Iran expanded its asymmetric strategy in response to military pressure?

    1. Decentralised governance: Iran dispersed decision-making structures across multiple institutions anticipating targeted assassinations of leadership.
    2. Expansion of conflict geography: Conflict widened beyond U.S. bases in the Gulf to broader strategic targets.
    3. Political war dimension: Iran turned the war into a regional political confrontation, highlighting vulnerabilities of the American security system.
    4. Energy security threat: Potential disruptions in Gulf energy supplies place multiple economies at risk.

    Why do the strategic objectives of Israel and the United States diverge?

    1. Israel’s military priority: Focuses on sustained military operations to eliminate threats regardless of political fallout.
    2. American political constraints: The United States seeks a political settlement to avoid prolonged military engagement and domestic opposition.
    3. War termination dilemma: The United States cannot withdraw without stabilising the region, while Israel prioritises eliminating Iranian capabilities.

    How does the war expose weaknesses in U.S. regional strategy?

    1. Security umbrella vulnerability: Gulf states appear exposed despite American military presence.
    2. Mixed signalling: Washington alternates between escalation and de-escalation, creating uncertainty among allies.
    3. Policy inconsistency: U.S. leadership attempts quick regime change strategies similar to earlier interventions in Venezuela, Syria, and Cuba.

    How could the conflict reshape the global geopolitical balance?

    1. Strategic distraction: U.S. focus on West Asia reduces attention on Asia-Pacific security.
    2. China’s strategic opportunity: China gains space to strengthen its case regarding Taiwan.
    3. Russia’s economic benefit: Rising oil prices strengthen Russia’s war economy amid the Russia-Ukraine War.
    4. Emerging multipolar order: Regional powers such as Türkiye, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan could gain greater strategic autonomy.

    Why does the crisis create complex diplomatic challenges for India?

    1. Energy dependence: India imports a significant share of crude oil from Gulf countries.
    2. Diaspora presence: Millions of Indian workers live across Gulf states.
    3. Regional balancing: India maintains strong relations with Israel, Iran, and Arab Gulf countries simultaneously.
    4. Strategic uncertainty: Growing rivalry between the U.S. and China constrains India’s diplomatic space.

    Conclusion

    The escalating conflict involving Iran marks a significant shift in the strategic landscape of West Asia, transforming a regional confrontation into a broader geopolitical contest involving major powers. The crisis exposes the fragility of existing security arrangements in the Gulf, threatens global energy stability, and accelerates the emergence of a multipolar regional order. For India, whose economic, energy, and diaspora interests are deeply intertwined with the region, the conflict underscores the need for a calibrated and balanced foreign policy. Maintaining strategic autonomy, strengthening diplomatic engagement with all stakeholders, safeguarding maritime and energy interests, and enhancing regional partnerships will be crucial for India to navigate the evolving geopolitical turbulence in West Asia.

  • Mojtaba Khamenei Becomes Iran’s New Supreme Leader

    Why in the News

    The Assembly of Experts has appointed Mojtaba Khamenei as the new Supreme Leader of Iran following the death of former leader Ali Khamenei in a U.S.–Israeli strike.

    Key Highlights

    • Age: 57
    • Position: Third Supreme Leader of Iran.
    • Predecessors:
      1. Ruhollah Khomeini (1979–1989)
      2. Ali Khamenei (1989–2026)

    Role of the Supreme Leader in Iran

    • The Supreme Leader is the highest authority in Iran’s political system.
    • Key powers include:
      • Head of state
      • Commander-in-chief of armed forces
      • Control over the judiciary, military, and security agencies
      • Influence over foreign and defence policy
      • Ability to appoint key officials and veto decisions
    • Although Iran elects a President, the Supreme Leader holds ultimate authority.
    [2016] Which of the following is not a member of ‘Gulf Cooperation Council’? (a) Iran (b) Saudi Arabia (c) Oman (d) Kuwait

  • India Taps Alternative Crude Supplies

    Why in the News
     Due to the West Asia conflict affecting shipments through the Strait of Hormuz, India is securing crude oil from alternative sources.

    Key Points:

    • India imports about 88% of its crude oil needs; nearly half normally passes through the Strait of Hormuz.
    • Indian refiners are sourcing additional crude from:
      • United States
      • Russia
      • West Africa and Latin America.
    • Refineries have deferred maintenance shutdowns to maintain supply buffers.
    • A 30-day U.S. waiver (till April 5) allows delivery of already-loaded Russian oil cargoes to India.
    • Around 120 million barrels of Russian crude are currently in transit globally, some near India.

    Concerns:

    • Alternative routes may increase freight and insurance costs.
    • Rising oil prices could increase India’s import bill, widen the current account deficit, and pressure the rupee.
    • Every $10 rise in crude prices may raise inflation by ~20–25 basis points.
    [2011] In the context of global oil prices, “Brent crude oil” is frequently referred to in the news. What does this term imply? It is a major classification of crude oil. It is sourced from the North Sea. It does not contain sulphur. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 2 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • How West Asia conflict may impact other core industries, beyond oil & gas

    Why in the News?

    The ongoing conflict in West Asia has raised serious concerns because its consequences extend far beyond oil supply disruptions. The region supplies a large share of India’s critical industrial inputs, and escalating tensions have increased fears of supply chain disruptions, particularly if shipping routes through the Strait of Hormuz are affected. India imported $98.7 billion worth of goods from the region in 2025, reflecting the depth of economic interdependence. 

    How Dependent is India on West Asia for Critical Industrial Inputs?

    1. Industrial Raw Material Imports: West Asia supplies essential materials including limestone, sulphur, gypsum, direct reduced iron, and copper wires that support multiple manufacturing sectors.
      1. Over 65% of India’s sulphur imports, 68.5% of limestone, 62.1% of gypsum, and 59.1% of direct reduced iron originate from West Asia
    2. Trade Dependence: India imported $98.7 billion worth of goods from West Asia in 2025, indicating strong economic reliance on the region.
    3. Regional Composition: West Asia includes Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, along with Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen.
    4. Strategic Industrial Inputs: More than half of India’s imports of several key commodities originate from the region, making supply diversification difficult in the short term.

    Why Could Disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz Trigger Wider Economic Impacts?

    1. Strategic Maritime Route: The Strait of Hormuz is one of the world’s most critical energy and trade chokepoints, linking the Persian Gulf to global markets.
    2. Shipping Vulnerability: Missile and drone attacks on energy and logistics infrastructure across Gulf countries have intensified fears of shipping disruptions.
    3. Energy Supply Shock: Any prolonged disruption could cause global oil supply shocks and disrupt industrial logistics.
    4. Supply Chain Transmission: The Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) notes that disruptions lasting more than a week could rapidly impact industries dependent on imported raw materials

    What Industrial Sectors in India are Most Vulnerable?

    Construction and Infrastructure

    1. Limestone Dependency: India imported $483 million worth of limestone from West Asia, accounting for 68.5% of its total limestone imports.
    2. Gypsum Imports: India imported $129 million worth of gypsum, representing 62.1% of total imports.
    3. Construction Impact: Both minerals are critical inputs for cement production and construction materials.
    4. Infrastructure Risks: Supply disruptions could raise cement prices and delay infrastructure projects.

    Fertiliser and Chemical Industry

    1. Sulphur Imports: India imported $420 million worth of sulphur from West Asia, representing 65.8% of its sulphur imports.
    2. Industrial Role: Sulphur is used to produce sulphuric acid, a key input for fertiliser manufacturing and chemical industries.
    3. Agricultural Linkage: Fertiliser supply disruptions could indirectly affect agricultural productivity.

    Steel Manufacturing

    1. Direct Reduced Iron (DRI): India imported $190 million worth of DRI from West Asia, accounting for 59.1% of imports.
    2. Industrial Importance: DRI is a critical input for steelmaking.
    3. Industrial Output Risk: Supply disruptions could affect steel production capacity.

    Diamond Processing Industry

    1. Rough Diamond Imports: Over 40% of India’s rough diamonds come from West Asia.
    2. Processing Hubs: These diamonds are processed in Indian diamond cutting and polishing hubs before being exported globally.
    3. Export Risk: Supply disruptions could affect India’s global diamond trade competitiveness.

    How Are Energy and Industrial Supply Chains Interconnected?

    1. Energy Price Transmission: Rising energy costs increase production and transportation costs across industries.
    2. Industrial Input Inflation: Mineral supply disruptions raise costs for cement, fertilisers, steel, and chemicals.
    3. Export Sector Impact: Higher input costs reduce competitiveness in export-oriented sectors such as diamonds.
    4. Macroeconomic Effect: Supply shocks contribute to inflation and industrial slowdown.

    What Strategic Concerns Does This Crisis Highlight for India?

    1. Supply Chain Concentration: Excessive dependence on a single region for multiple industrial inputs creates economic vulnerability.
    2. Geopolitical Risk Exposure: Industrial stability becomes linked to geopolitical stability in West Asia.
    3. Trade Route Security: Disruptions in maritime chokepoints threaten global trade flows.
    4. Need for Diversification: Alternative supply sources and domestic production strategies are essential.

    Conclusion

    The West Asia conflict demonstrates that geopolitical crises can disrupt not only energy markets but also broader industrial supply chains. India’s dependence on the region for essential industrial inputs exposes structural vulnerabilities in sectors such as fertilisers, construction, steel, and diamond processing. Strengthening supply diversification, enhancing domestic resource capacity, and developing resilient trade networks are critical to safeguarding India’s economic and industrial stability.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian Countries.

    Linkage: The article highlights India’s deep economic dependence on West Asia not only for energy but also for critical industrial inputs such as sulphur, limestone, gypsum, and DRI, making regional stability vital for India’s economic security. The PYQ directly links geopolitics of West Asia, trade routes like the Strait of Hormuz, and India’s strategic supply chains, which are central themes discussed in the article.

  • F-1 Visas for Indian Students Drop

    Why in the News?
    Data from the United States Department of State shows a 69% fall in F-1 visas issued to Indian students in June–July 2025 compared to 2024.

    Key Points:

    • F-1 visa: Non-immigrant visa for international students studying in the U.S.
    • Visas issued to Indians fell from 41,336 (2024) to 12,776 (2025) during the peak admission period.
    • Decline followed stricter immigration measures under Donald Trump’s administration, including:
      • Temporary pause in visa interviews
      • Expanded social media screening for applicants.
    • Chinese students also saw a decline, but smaller (about 56%).
    • Despite the drop, Indians remain the largest international student group in the U.S., with about 3.63 lakh students (31%) in 2024-25.

    F-1 Visa

    • The F-1 visa is a non immigrant student visa issued by the United States that allows foreign students to study full time at accredited academic institutions in the United States.
    • It is the most common visa for international students pursuing higher education in the U.S.
    [2018] Consider the following statements: Human capital formation as a concept is better explained in terms of a process, which enables 1. individuals of a country to accumulate more capital. 2. increasing the knowledge, skill levels and capacities of the people of the country. 3. accumulation of tangible wealth. 4. accumulation of intangible wealth.Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2  (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4

  • What are gravity bombs which US is planning to shift to Iran

    Why in the News?

    The United States has announced plans to deploy precision gravity bombs against Iranian targets, signalling a shift in military strategy from remote missile strikes to direct aerial bombing operations. Earlier operations relied on stand-off munitions launched from safe distances to avoid Iranian air defence systems. The move toward gravity bombs suggests that the US military believes Iranian air defences have been significantly degraded in recent operations.

    What are gravity bombs and how do they function?

    1. Free-fall munition: Gravity bombs are unguided bombs without propulsion systems, dropped from aircraft and guided by gravity and aerodynamics toward the target.
    2. Trajectory mechanics: The bomb’s path depends on gravity, aerodynamic drag, aircraft speed, altitude, and release angle.
    3. Modern upgrades: The integration of JDAM kits with GPS guidance and steerable fins converts traditional bombs into precision-guided munitions.
    4. Operational evolution: Despite their historical association with World War-era weapons, modern gravity bombs form a core component of contemporary US Air Force strike capability.
    5. Operational theatres: These bombs have been deployed extensively in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Syria and also used in conflicts involving Israel in Gaza and Lebanon.

    Why has the United States relied on stand-off weapons until now?

    1. Stand-off strategy: Long-range munitions allow attacks without entering enemy air defence zones, minimizing pilot risk.
    2. Cruise missile systems: Weapons such as the Tomahawk cruise missile are launched from naval destroyers or stealth aircraft and can strike targets hundreds of kilometres away.
    3. Drone warfare: Systems like the LUCAS drone (Low-cost Unmanned Combat Attack System) provide remote strike capability
    4. Risk mitigation: Stand-off weapons reduce the probability of pilot casualties and aircraft losses.
    5. Air defence challenge: Iran’s layered air defence network previously limited the feasibility of direct bombing missions.

    What are the main types of conventional US gravity bombs?

    1. MK-82 (500-pound bomb): Designed for soft targets such as light vehicles, radar installations, and exposed infantry positions.
    2. MK-83 (1,000-pound bomb): Used against reinforced structures, command posts, and smaller bridges.
    3. MK-84 (2,000-pound bomb): A bunker-buster weapon capable of penetrating deep military complexes or large industrial facilities.
    4. Blast impact: The MK-84 can produce craters up to 50 feet wide and 36 feet deep.
    5. Operational series: Current US operations rely primarily on the Mark-80 series bombs equipped with JDAM kits.

    How do conventional gravity bombs differ from nuclear gravity bombs?

    1. Conventional payload: Standard gravity bombs carry chemical explosive charges and cause destruction through blast and fragmentation.
    2. Nuclear variants: The US arsenal also includes nuclear gravity bombs such as the B61 and B83 series, capable of delivering explosive yields measured in kilotons or megatons of TNT.
    3. Strategic control: Nuclear gravity bombs require explicit authorisation from the US President before deployment.
    4. Escalation risk: Their use would represent a major escalation in global nuclear tensions.

    Why is the US shifting from stand-off missiles to gravity bombs?

    1. Cost efficiency: Cruise missiles cost millions of dollars per strike, while gravity bombs cost approximately $25,000-$30,000 when equipped with JDAM kits.
    2. Operational tempo: Cheaper munitions enable sustained high-volume bombing operations.
    3. Air superiority assumption: Direct bombing missions are viable only if a military has neutralised enemy air defence systems.
    4. Tactical trade-off: Gravity bombs reduce costs but increase risk to pilots and aircraft.
    5. Strategic signalling: The shift suggests that US forces believe Iranian anti-aircraft systems have been weakened.

    Which aircraft platforms can deploy these gravity bombs?

    1. F-15 Strike Eagle: Multi-role fighter capable of precision ground strikes.
    2. F-35 stealth fighter: Provides low-observable penetration of defended airspace.
    3. B-52 Stratofortress: Long-range strategic bomber capable of carrying large payloads of conventional bombs.
    4. Operational flexibility: Gravity bombs can be deployed by fighter jets, stealth aircraft, and heavy bombers, enabling diverse operational strategies.

    Conclusion

    The proposed use of gravity bombs reflects a significant tactical transition in modern warfare, from expensive remote missile strikes toward cost-efficient direct bombardment enabled by precision guidance technologies. This shift indicates confidence in degrading Iranian air defence systems while highlighting the continuing relevance of traditional aerial bombs in the era of advanced precision warfare.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence system technically superior to any other system presently available in the world?

    Linkage: This question highlights the role of advanced air defence systems in establishing air superiority, a key factor that determines whether direct bombing missions (such as gravity bomb deployment) are feasible. Understanding such systems helps analyse modern warfare dynamics, including missile defence, aerial dominance, and the strategic use of precision air strikes.

  • Sinking of Iranian Warship: Maritime Law Governing Naval Conflict

    Why in the News

    An Iranian warship IRIS Dena was reportedly torpedoed by a US submarine in the Indian Ocean near Sri Lanka after participating in the MILAN 2026 and the International Fleet Review at Visakhapatnam. The incident has sparked debate about the legal framework governing naval warfare in international waters.

    Key Legal Framework Governing Maritime Conflict

    1. UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)

    • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea regulates maritime zones, navigation rights and ocean governance.
    • It mainly governs peacetime maritime activities.
    • It does not directly regulate wartime naval operations.
    • Notably, the United States is not a signatory to UNCLOS.

    2. Law of Naval Warfare

    • During armed conflict, naval warfare laws operate alongside UNCLOS.
    • Key principles include:
      • Warships of enemy states can be legitimate military targets.
      • The laws of armed conflict at sea regulate blockades, attacks, and treatment of vessels.

    3. UN Charter and Use of Force

    • The United Nations Charter provides rules for the use of force.
    • Article 2(4): Prohibits the use of force against another state.
    • Article 51: Allows self-defence in response to an armed attack.

    4. UN Security Council Authorization

    • Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the United Nations Security Council can authorise the use of force.
    • However:
      • Requires majority approval.
      • None of the permanent members must use their veto.

    Maritime Zones Relevant to the Incident

    1. Territorial Sea – up to 12 nautical miles from coast (full sovereignty).
    2. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) – up to 200 nautical miles where coastal states have economic rights.
    3. High Seas – international waters beyond national jurisdiction. The attack reportedly occurred in the EEZ of Sri Lanka.
    [2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • India–Finland Relations Elevated to Strategic Partnership

    Why in the News

    India and Finland have elevated their bilateral relations to a “Strategic Partnership in Digitalization and Sustainability” after talks between Narendra Modi and Finnish President Alexander Stubb in New Delhi.

    Key Outcomes of the Visit

    Strategic Partnership Focus

    • Cooperation will expand in high-technology sectors such as:
      • Artificial Intelligence
      • 6G telecommunications
      • Clean energy
      • Quantum computing
      • Digital infrastructure

    Agreements Signed

    • Three agreements were signed in the fields of:
      • Mobility cooperation
      • Environment and sustainability
      • Statistics and data sharing

    New Institutional Mechanisms

    The two countries will establish:

    • Joint Working Group on Digitalization
    • Joint Task Force on 6G technology
    • Consular Dialogue mechanism
    • Greater connectivity between startup ecosystems

    Economic Cooperation

    • India and Finland aim to double bilateral trade by 2030.
    • The countries will co-host the World Circular Economy Forum in India.
    • Cooperation expected in sectors such as: Defence, Space, Semiconductors and Critical minerals

    Existing India–Finland Cooperation

    Examples highlighted during the meeting include:

    • Finnish company Nokia helping build telecom networks in India.
    • Finnish architectural collaboration in constructing the Chenab Railway Bridge.
    • Finland’s partnership in establishing the world’s largest bamboo-to-bioethanol refinery at Numaligarh in Assam.
    Consider the following countries: 1. Finland  2. Germany  3. Norway  4. Russia How many of the above countries have a border with the North Sea? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four