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Subject: International Relations

  • Israel–Lebanon Escalation: Litani River Strikes  

    Why in the News

    • Israel carried out strikes on bridges in Lebanon, especially over the Litani River, intensifying the conflict with Hezbollah.

    Key Developments

    • Israel:
      • Struck a key bridge on coastal highway
      • Ordered destruction of all crossings over Litani River
      • Accelerated demolition of border villages
    • Objective:
      • Disrupt Hezbollah movement and supply lines

    Strategic Importance of Litani River

    • Length: ~90 miles
    • Acts as: De facto boundary zone in south Lebanon
    • Historically linked to: Proposed buffer zone between Israel and Hezbollah
    [2017] Mediterranean Sea is a border of which of the following countries? 
    1. Jordan 
    2. Iraq 
    3. Lebanon 
    4. Syria 
    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 
    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only

  • World Happiness Report 2026  

    Why in the News

    • The World Happiness Report 2026 has been released.
    • Finland ranked as the happiest country for the 9th consecutive year.
    • India ranked 116th out of 147 countries.

    Top 10 Happiest Countries

    1. Finland
    2. Iceland
    3. Denmark
    4. Costa Rica
    5. Sweden
    6. Norway
    7. Netherlands
    8. Israel
    9. Luxembourg
    10. Switzerland

    Unhappiest Countries

    • Bottom-ranked: Afghanistan

    Key Factors Used in Ranking

    1. GDP per capita
    2. Life expectancy
    3. Social support
    4. Freedom to make life choices
    5. Generosity
    6. Perception of corruption

    Who publishes the World Happiness Report?

    • Wellbeing Research Centre, University of Oxford (lead publisher)
    • In partnership with:
      • Gallup
      • UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network
      • An independent editorial board of experts

    Major Findings

    1. Social Media Impact

    • High usage linked to: Lower well-being, especially among teenagers
    • Teenage girls using >5 hours/day: Reported lower life satisfaction

    2. Youth Happiness Decline

    • Decline observed in: USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand

    3. Why Finland Tops

    • High income with equitable distribution
    • Strong welfare state
    • High trust in institutions
    • Better life expectancy

    4. Conflict and Happiness

    • Countries facing conflict: Lowest happiness levels
    [2019] In the context of any country, which one of the following would be considered as part of its social capital? (a) The proportion of literates in the population (b) The stock of its buildings, other infrastructure and machines (c) The size of population in the working age group (d) The level of mutual trust and harmony in the society

  • Oil, power, and politics of disruption

    Why in the News?

    The disruption of the Strait of Hormuz, through which nearly one-fifth of global oil trade flows, has triggered a sharp spike in oil prices (crossing $110/barrel) and exposed the fragility of global energy supply chains. The crisis is significant because it disrupts a critical chokepoint for the first time at this scale in recent years, contrasting with earlier relatively stable flows despite geopolitical tensions.

    How did past oil shocks reshape global energy geopolitics?

    1. 1970s oil crisis: Oil prices increased sharply due to OPEC actions, exposing dependence of Western economies on West Asian oil.
    2. Shift in control: Oil geopolitics moved from Western firms to state-controlled national oil companies in producer countries.
    3. U.S. response: Initiated energy diversification and domestic production push, culminating in shale oil revolution (mid-2000s).
    4. Outcome: U.S. became the world’s largest oil producer, reshaping global supply dynamics and reducing dependence on imports.

    How have wars and conflicts shaped control over oil resources?

    1. Gulf War (1990-91): Ensured continued Western access to Gulf oil after Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait.
    2. Iraq War (2003–2011): Reinforced U.S. strategic presence in West Asia and control over energy routes.
    3. Venezuela factor: U.S. actions (including sanctions and political pressure) influenced oil-rich regions outside West Asia.
    4. Strategic logic: Energy security has been a primary driver of military interventions and foreign policy decisions.

    What is the significance of global oil reserve distribution?

    1. Reserve concentration: Venezuela and Iran together account for ~39% of proven oil reserves, highlighting extreme geographic concentration.
    2. Power asymmetry: Countries with reserves wield disproportionate geopolitical influence.
    3. Supply vulnerability: Concentration increases risk of supply shocks during conflicts.
    4. Example: Hormuz disruption directly affects exports from reserve-rich Gulf countries.

    Why is the Strait of Hormuz central to global energy security?

    1. Strategic chokepoint: Handles nearly 20% of global oil trade, making it a critical artery for global energy flows.
    2. Geographical concentration: Links Persian Gulf producers (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran) to global markets.
    3. Energy dependence asymmetry: West Asia produces surplus energy, while Asia (China, India, Japan) drives demand.
    4. Limited alternatives: Lack of viable substitutes increases vulnerability; pipelines and alternate routes remain insufficient.

    How has the disruption reshaped global oil markets and prices?

    1. Price escalation: Oil prices surged beyond $110/barrel, indicating immediate supply shock.
    2. Market volatility: Disruptions triggered uncertainty, impacting futures markets and energy planning.
    3. Historical contrast: Earlier geopolitical tensions did not significantly block flows; current disruption marks a sharper shock.
    4. Supply shock transmission: Increased input costs for transport, manufacturing, and inflation globally.

    What role do major powers play in the geopolitics of energy flows?

    1. U.S. energy dominance: Became the world’s largest oil producer post-2000s shale boom, reducing import dependence.
    2. Strategic intervention: Seeks increased purchases of unsanctioned Russian oil to stabilize markets.
    3. Russia’s repositioning: Post-2022 sanctions, redirected exports toward India and China, emerging as key supplier.
    4. Control over reserves: Countries like U.S., Russia, Venezuela, Canada possess large reserves, influencing power balance.

    How has India navigated shifting oil geopolitics?

    1. Import dependence: India is the second-largest crude importer and third-largest consumer globally.
      1. Value addition: Crude oil is refined into petrol, diesel, LPG, and petrochemicals.
    2. Discounted Russian oil: Share increased from 2.5% (2022) to ~39% (2023), reducing import costs.
    3. Refining advantage: India processes crude into petrol, diesel, LPG, petrochemicals, exporting refined products.
      1. China parallel: Similar refinery expansion strategy adopted by China.
    4. Strategic vulnerability: Heavy reliance on imports, especially via Hormuz, exposes India to supply shocks.

    What are the structural imbalances in global energy flows?

    1. Supply-demand mismatch: West Asia = supply hub; Asia = demand hub, creating interdependence.
    2. Regional concentration risk: Energy reserves concentrated in few regions increases geopolitical tensions.
    3. Consumption disparity: U.S. per capita energy use is 10× India and 2.4× China, reflecting unequal demand patterns.
    4. Global trade imbalance: Countries like China and India remain net importers, while Gulf nations are exporters.

    What are the implications for future global energy order?

    1. Energy realignment: Shift toward Russia-Asia energy axis due to sanctions and trade redirection.
    2. Geopolitical fragmentation: Emergence of competing blocs (West vs Russia-China alignment).
    3. Strategic stockpiling: Countries likely to enhance reserves and diversify suppliers.
    4. Long-term uncertainty: Persistent instability in West Asia could reshape global energy governance.

    Conclusion

    The Strait of Hormuz disruption underscores the structural fragility of global energy systems rooted in geographic concentration and geopolitical rivalries. It accelerates the transition toward diversified supply chains, strategic autonomy, and new energy alliances, while exposing India’s dual position as both a beneficiary (discounted oil) and a vulnerable importer.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian Countries.

    Linkage: This PYQ aligns with the article’s focus on geopolitics of oil and chokepoint vulnerability, especially the Strait of Hormuz. It also reflects India’s evolving strategy of diversification (Russia) and refining-led value addition amid global energy disruptions.

  • Ras Laffan Attack & India’s LNG Concerns  

    Why in News

    • Missile strikes on Ras Laffan Industrial City, the world’s largest LNG facility, amid West Asia conflict have raised concerns over global energy supply and India’s energy security.

    What Happened

    • Iran targeted:
      • LNG facilities in Qatar (Ras Laffan)
      • Other energy sites in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait
    • Earlier: Attack on South Pars Gas Field (world’s largest gas field)
    • Marks escalation from transport disruption → production disruption

    Why Ras Laffan is Important

    • Accounts for ~20% of global LNG supply
    • Hub of:
      • LNG production
      • Liquefaction
      • Export infrastructure
    • Damage may cause long-term supply disruption

    Impact on Global Energy

    • Brent crude: Jumped above $119/barrel
    • Natural gas prices: Sharp rise
    • Risk: From supply chain issue → full supply crisis

    India’s Energy Dependence

    1. LNG Dependence

    • ~50% of gas demand met via imports
    • >40% LNG from Qatar
    • Most from Ras Laffan

    2. Overall Energy Imports

    • Crude oil: ~88% import dependent
    • LPG: ~60%
    • Natural gas: ~50%

    3. Strategic Chokepoint

    • Strait of Hormuz:
      • ~50% of India’s crude imports
      • ~60% LNG
      • ~90% LPG

    Immediate Impact on India

    • LNG supply cuts to industries
    • LPG supply concerns
    • Rising energy import costs
    [2024] Consider the following statements: Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe . Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea . Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

  • India–Myanmar Pulse Deal Extended

    Why in the News

    • India plans to extend its pulses import agreement with Myanmar for 5 more years (beyond 2025-26) to ensure food security amid global supply disruptions.

    Background of the Agreement

    • Original MoU signed in 2021
    • Between: India’s Ministry of Consumer Affairs and Myanmar’s Ministry of Commerce. 

    Import Commitments (2021–26)

    • Urad dal: 2.5 lakh tonnes/year
    • Tur dal: 1 lakh tonnes/year

    New Developments

    • Extension proposed till 2030-31
    • Additional: +1 lakh tonnes Tur dal (2026-27)

    Why Extension is Needed

    1. Demand–Supply Gap

    • India’s pulses demand: 28–29 million tonnes
    • Domestic production: 24–25 million tonnes
      • Persistent import dependence

    2. Falling Domestic Production

    • Tur: ↓ from 3.64 → 3.45 million tonnes
    • Urad: ↓ from 2.24 → 1.74 million tonnes

    3. Global Supply Chain Disruptions

    • Due to geopolitical tensions: US–Israel–Iran conflict.
      • Risks to: Fuel supply, Fertilizer availability, and Food imports.

    Role of Myanmar

    • Key supplier of pulses to India
    • Imports rising:
      • Tur: ↑ 44% (2025-26)
      • Urad: ↑ significantly

    Significance

    • Food Security: Ensures stable supply of protein-rich pulses (dal)
    • Price Stability: Prevents inflation in essential commodities
    • Strategic Trade Diversification: Reduces risk from global disruptions
    [2020] With reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements: Black gram (Urad) can be cultivated as both kharif and rabi crop. Green-gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production. In the last three decades, while the production of kharif pulses has increased, the production of rabi pulses has decreased. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • [19th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: The opportunity in Cameroon to rebalance the WTO

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2023] What are the direct and indirect subsidies provided to the farm sector in India? Discuss the issues raised by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in relation to agricultural subsidies.Linkage: It directly tests understanding of WTO norms, subsidy regimes, and global trade fairness, which are central to GS-III (Indian Economy & Agriculture). It closely aligns with the article’s focus on market distortions, subsidy transparency, and need for WTO reform to balance equity between developed and developing nations.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The upcoming World Trade Organisation (WTO) Ministerial Conference (MC14) in 2026 at Yaoundé, Cameroon, comes at a critical juncture as the organization faces its most severe institutional crisis since 1995, with the dispute settlement system paralysed and rising unilateral trade actions undermining multilateralism. With 166 members struggling to reach consensus and digital trade rapidly expanding beyond regulatory frameworks, the relevance of WTO itself is under question. This makes reform not optional but existential.

    Why is the WTO facing an existential institutional crisis?

    1. Dispute Settlement Paralysis: Weakens enforceability of trade rules due to stalled Appellate Body appointments; reduces trust in multilateral commitments.
    2. Consensus Deadlock: The WTO’s consensus-based decision-making process (requiring all 164+ members to agree) has resulted in a deadlock, rendering the institution unable to update rules for modern challenges such as e-commerce, digital trade, and environmental sustainability.
    3. US-China Rivalry and Structural Disagreements: The US argues that the Appellate Body has engaged in “judicial overreach” by creating new obligations rather than just applying rules. Furthermore, the US contends that existing WTO rules are inadequate to handle China’s state-led economic model, specifically regarding subsidies and intellectual property theft.
    4. Developmental Divides: There is an ongoing conflict between developed and developing nations regarding “Special and Differential Treatment” (S&DT). Developed nations argue that self-declared developing countries (like China, India) should not receive special exemptions, while developing nations view these as essential for their economic growth. 
    5. Digital Trade Lag: Fails to regulate rapidly expanding digital commerce; creates regulatory gaps in cross-border trade.
    6. Unresolved Legacy Issues: Retains long-pending disputes and negotiations without resolution; reduces institutional credibility.

    How is global trade shifting from rules-based to power-based systems?

    1. Geopolitical Instrumentalisation: Uses tariffs and economic dependence as strategic tools; shifts trade from economics to power politics.
    2. Unilateral and Bilateral Actions: Bypasses WTO frameworks through preferential trade agreements and unilateral tariffs.
    3. “Wrecking-ball Politics”: Encourages short-term deals over institutional commitments, as highlighted in Munich Security Report 2026.
    4. Ad-hoc Arrangements: Replaces rule-based governance with power-driven negotiations lacking shared principles.

    How have changes in global production patterns challenged WTO frameworks?

    1. Technological Transformation: Expands trade in advanced and technology-intensive goods; requires updated regulatory frameworks.
    2. Climate-linked Trade Measures: Introduces carbon-related regulations impacting trade flows and equity concerns.
    3. Digital Integration: Reshapes global value chains through e-commerce and data flows beyond WTO’s current scope.
    4. Obsolete Rule Structure: Retains late 20th-century frameworks unsuitable for 21st-century trade dynamics.

    Why is dispute settlement reform central to WTO revival?

    Dispute settlement reform is central to World Trade Organization (WTO) revival because the system, often called the “crown jewel” of the organization, has been paralyzed since December 2019. The inability to appoint new Appellate Body members has rendered the binding dispute resolution mechanism dysfunctional, threatening to turn the WTO from a rule-based system into a power-based one, where larger economies can bypass trade norms with impunity.

    1. Credibility Restoration: Currently, over 20 panel rulings have been “appealed into the void,” meaning they cannot be resolved until new Appellate Body members are appointed. Reforms will ensure enforceability of rules through a functioning dispute resolution mechanism.
    2. Predictability in Trade: Reduces uncertainty in global trade relations; stabilizes economic expectations.
    3. Conflict Reduction: Prevents escalation of trade disputes into political conflicts.
    4. Trust Rebuilding: Encourages members to rely on institutional processes instead of unilateral actions.

    How can WTO reforms balance fairness with flexibility?

    1. Transparency in Subsidies: Ensures equitable competition through clearer reporting and monitoring mechanisms.
    2. Special and Differential Treatment (SDT): Updates provisions to reflect current economic realities while protecting developing countries.
    3. Inclusive Institutional Design: Maintains openness and universality in reform processes.
    4. Flexible Frameworks: Allows plurilateral initiatives while ensuring integration into broader WTO norms.

    What are the risks of failure to reform WTO?

    1. Fragmentation of Trade System: Leads to competing trade blocs and regional arrangements.
    2. Marginalisation of Developing Countries: Increases vulnerability due to lack of negotiating power.
    3. Erosion of Rule-based Order: Replaces predictability with coercion and economic dominance.
    4. Global Instability: Creates uncertainty in trade flows affecting growth and development.

    How can MC14 in Cameroon become a turning point?

    1. Procedural Reforms: Updates negotiation processes to overcome consensus paralysis.
    2. Institutional Modernisation: Aligns WTO rules with digital, climate, and technological realities.
    3. Collective Political Will: Ensures shared responsibility among members for sustaining multilateralism.
    4. Rebalancing Trade Governance: Restores equilibrium between power and principles in global trade.

    Conclusion

    WTO reform represents a systemic necessity to preserve rule-based global trade. MC14 offers a critical opportunity to restore institutional credibility, prevent fragmentation, and ensure equitable participation in an increasingly complex global economy.

  • On scientific collaborations in BRICS

    Why in the News?

    BRICS scientific cooperation has gained renewed attention amid expanding membership and India’s upcoming 2026 presidency, which aims to deepen collaboration in AI, climate tech, and public health.

    How has BRICS evolved as a platform for scientific cooperation?

    1. Multipolar Vision: Establishes an alternative to Western-dominated global governance; aligns with development-oriented global cooperation.
    2. Institutional Expansion: Includes new members (Saudi Arabia, Egypt, UAE, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iran), increasing diversity and capacity.
    3. Strategic Shift: Moves from basic science to applied domains such as energy, water, health, and environment.
    4. Innovation Focus: Integrates STI into economic development frameworks; promotes technology-enabled ecosystems.

    What institutional mechanisms support Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) cooperation in BRICS?

    1. BRICS STI Framework (2011): Formalises cooperation in science, technology, and innovation.
    2. BRICS STI Steering Committee: Coordinates joint calls, project approvals, and implementation.
    3. Thematic Working Groups: Focus on priority areas like AI, biotechnology, climate tech, and space.
    4. BRICS Young Scientist Forum: Promotes youth engagement and research collaboration.
    5. BRICS Institute of Future Networks: Advances ICT and emerging technologies.
    6. New Development Bank Linkages: Supports infrastructure and innovation financing.

    What are the major achievements in BRICS scientific collaboration?

    1. Expanded Research Scope: Moves from fundamental science to applied and socially relevant sectors. Ex: COVID-19 vaccines: From basic biology to applied vaccine development & public health systems
    2. Joint Research Projects: Facilitates cross-border innovation through coordinated funding calls.
      1. Ex: BRICS TB Research Network: Enables collaborative innovation in tuberculosis control; e.g., cross-border research on diagnostics, vaccines, and treatment strategies
      2. BRICS energy research cooperation: Structured under the BRICS Energy Research Cooperation Platform (ERCP), it focuses on advancing sustainable, secure, and affordable energy transitions through joint research, technological innovation, and policy exchanges.
    3. Artificial Intelligence Integration: 2025 BRICS Leaders’ Declaration (Brazil Summit-Rio de Janeiro) recognised Artificial Intelligence as a central pillar of STI cooperation, prioritising its use in economic development, governance, healthcare, and climate solutions
    4. Space and ICT Collaboration: Strengthens partnerships in satellite applications and digital technologies.
      1. BRICS Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation: Enables shared satellite data for disaster management, agriculture, and environmental monitoring
      2. BRICS Institute of Future Networks (BIFN): Promotes ICT cooperation in 5G, AI, and next-gen communication technologies.
    5. COVID-19 Response: Enhances cooperation in vaccine research, biosecurity, and public health systems.

    What structural limitations hinder effective STI cooperation?

    1. Funding Constraints: Maintains limited financial resources compared to European Union’s (EU’s) Horizon programmes.
    2. Institutional Weakness: Lacks a permanent secretariat or central coordination mechanism.
    3. Uneven Participation: Shows disparities in engagement levels; newer members less integrated.
    4. Limited Data Systems: Restricts evidence-based policymaking due to weak monitoring frameworks.
    5. Geopolitical Fragmentation: Faces barriers from techno-nationalism and global tensions.

    Why is progress uneven across sectors and members?

    1. Capacity Asymmetry: Reflects disparities in R&D expenditure; China dominates, others lag.
    2. Infrastructure Gaps: Slows progress in mega-science areas like ocean research and polar science.
    3. Diverse Priorities: Creates coordination challenges due to heterogeneity in development goals.
    4. Weak Commercialisation: Limits scaling of innovations into market-ready technologies.

    What are the implications of BRICS expansion for STI cooperation?

    1. Increased Diversity: Expands scientific and economic heterogeneity across members.
    2. Coordination Complexity: Makes consensus-building and priority alignment more difficult.
    3. Opportunity for Scale: Enhances potential for large-scale collaborative innovation networks.
    4. South-South Cooperation: Strengthens development-oriented research and knowledge exchange.

    What reforms are required to strengthen BRICS STI collaboration?

    1. Institutionalisation: Establishes a permanent secretariat for coordination and monitoring.
    2. Funding Enhancement: Increases pooled funding mechanisms for large-scale projects.
    3. Long-term Projects: Promotes mega-science collaborations (e.g., climate modelling, space research).
    4. Governance Integration: Expands STI into treaty negotiations and global governance frameworks.
    5. Data Systems: Develops monitoring frameworks for evidence-based decision-making.

    Conclusion

    BRICS has transitioned into a significant platform for scientific cooperation but remains constrained by weak institutionalisation, limited funding, and uneven participation. Strengthening governance mechanisms, financing, and long-term collaboration frameworks is essential for translating strategic intent into tangible outcomes.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics.

    Linkage: The PYQ highlights India’s engagement with regional groupings and extended neighbourhood (like BRICS) in a multipolar geopolitical order. It links to themes of strategic connectivity, energy security, and balancing major powers, core to India’s global partnerships like BRICS.

  • Impact of China’s Lithium Policy on India’s EV Sector

    Why in the News

    China has imposed export controls and licensing requirements on key lithium-ion battery components and technology, raising concerns for India’s electric vehicle (EV) sector, which is highly import-dependent.

    What are China’s Policy Changes?

    China has restricted exports of:

    • High-performance lithium-ion batteries (≥300 Wh/kg)
    • Cathode materials
    • Artificial graphite anodes
    • Battery manufacturing technology
      • China dominates the midstream processing stage of EV battery supply chains.

    Impact on India’s EV Sector

    1. Supply Chain Vulnerability

    • India depends almost entirely on imports for lithium
    • Heavy reliance on Chinese processing → risk of disruptions

    2. Rising Battery Costs

    • Restrictions may increase prices of: Lithium, Cobalt, and Nickel.
      • Leads to higher EV prices

    3. Slower EV Adoption

    • Increased costs → reduced affordability
    • Could delay India’s EV transition targets

    Government Response (India)

    • National Critical Mineral Mission: Ensures long-term supply security
      • Covers full value chain: Exploration → Mining → Processing → Recycling
    • Domestic Mining & Auctions: 46 critical mineral blocks auctioned
    • Overseas Acquisition: Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL)
      • Lithium exploration in Catamarca
    • Recycling Push: ₹1,500 crore incentive scheme for: Battery recycling and Recovery from waste (fly ash, tailings, etc.).
    [2025] In the context of electric vehicle batteries, consider the following elements: 
    1. Cobalt 
    2. Graphite 
    3. Lithium 
    4. Nickel 
    How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes? 
    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All the four

  • Sejjil Ballistic Missile (Dancing Missile)

    Why in the News

    Iran has deployed the Sejjil missile in active combat for the first time during “Wave 54” strikes against U.S. and Israeli positions, marking a major escalation in the Iran–US-Israel conflict (2026).

    What is the Sejjil Missile?

    • An indigenously developed, two-stage Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM)
    • Also known as Sajjil / Ashura
    • Represents Iran’s shift from liquid-fuel → solid-fuel missile technology.

    Evasive Maneuverability

    • Nicknamed “dancing missile”
    • Capable of mid-course manoeuvres, making interception difficult for systems like: Iron Dome and Arrow Missile Defence System.
    [2023] Consider the following statements: Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at sub-sonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Force Majeure in Global Energy Trade

    Why in the News

    Amid the ongoing Iran–US-Israel conflict (2026), major Gulf producers like Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain have invoked force majeure on oil and gas exports due to shipping disruptions and attacks on infrastructure.

    What is Force Majeure?

    • Force majeure is a contractual clause that allows a party to suspend or cancel its obligations without penalty when extraordinary events make performance impossible.
    • Origin: French term meaning “superior force”
    • Common in international trade, energy contracts, and maritime law

    Examples of Force Majeure Events

    • Wars and armed conflicts
    • Natural disasters (earthquakes, floods)
    • Pandemics (e.g., COVID-19)
    • Government actions or sanctions
    [2024] Consider the following statements: Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe. Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct