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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Possibility of life on Saturn’s Moon

    NASA’s Cassini spacecraft has detected an unusually high concentration of methane, along with carbon dioxide and dihydrogen, in the moons of Saturn by flying through their plumes.

    What is the new observation?

    • The spacecraft has found that Titan has methane in its atmosphere and Enceladus has a liquid ocean with erupting plumes of gas and water.

    Are there methane-producing organisms on Earth?

    • Most of the methane on Earth has a biological origin.
    • Microorganisms called methanogens are capable of generating methane as a metabolic byproduct.
    • They do not require oxygen to live and are widely distributed in nature.
    • They are found in swamps, dead organic matter, and even in the human gut.
    • They are known to survive in high temperatures and simulation studies have shown that they can live in Martian conditions.
    • Methanogens have been widely studied to understand if they can be a contributor to global warming.

    Could there be methanogens on Enceladus?

    • We cannot conclude that life exists in the Enceladus ocean.
    • It is the probability that Enceladus’ hydrothermal vents could be habitable to Earth-like microorganisms.
    • There can be life hypotheses.

    What other processes could have produced the methane?

    • Methane could be formed by the chemical breakdown of organic matter present in Enceladus’ core.
    • Hydrothermal processes could help the formation of carbon dioxide and methane.
    • On Earth, hydrothermal vents on seafloors are known to release methane, but this happens at a very slow rate.
    • This hypothesis is plausible but only if Enceladus was formed through the accretion of organic-rich material from comets.
    • The results suggest that methane production from hydrothermal vents is not sufficient to explain the high methane concentration detected by Cassini in the plumes.
    • An additional amount of methane produced via biological methanogenesis could match Cassini’s observations.

  • Anti-methanogenic feed supplement ‘Harit Dhara’

    An Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institute has developed an anti-methanogenic feed supplement ‘Harit Dhara’.

    Harit Dhara

    • Harit Dhara is prepared using condensed and hydrolysable tannin-rich plant-based sources abundantly available in the country.
    • It changes the composition of the volatile fatty acids that are the end-products of rumen fermentation (along with hydrogen and CO2).
    • It roughly costs Rs 6/kg and it is to be fed only to animals aged above three months having fully functional rumen.
    • When given to bovines and sheep, it not only cuts down their methane emissions by 17-20%.
    • It also results in higher milk production and body weight gain.

    Why it is significant?

    • Belching cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats in India emit an estimated 9.25 million tonnes (mt) to 14.2 mt of methane annually, out of a global total of 90 mt-plus from livestock.
    • And given methane’s global warming potential – 25 times of carbon dioxide (CO2) over 100 years, making it a more potent greenhouse gas – that’s cause for concern.
    • An average lactating cow or buffalo in India emits around 200 litres of methane per day, while it is 85-95 litres for young growing heifers and 20-25 litres for adult sheep.
    • Feeding Harit Dhara can reduce these by a fifth.

    How is methane produced by the cattles?

    • Methane is produced by animals having rumen, the first of their four stomachs where the plant material they eat – cellulose, fibre, starch and sugars – gets fermented or broken down by microorganisms prior to further digestion and nutrient absorption.
    • Carbohydrate fermentation leads to the production of CO2 and hydrogen.
    • These are used as substrate by archaea – microbes in the rumen with structure similar to bacteria – to produce methane, which the animals then expel through burping.
    • Harit Dhara acts by decreasing the population of protozoa microbes in the rumen, responsible for hydrogen production and making it available to the archaea for reduction of CO2 to methane.
    • Tropical plants containing tannins – bitter and astringent chemical compounds – are known to suppress or remove protozoa from the rumen.

    Need for India

    • The 2019 Livestock Census showed India’s cattle population at 193.46 million, along with 109.85 million buffaloes, 148.88 million goats and 74.26 million sheep.
    • Being largely fed on agricultural residues – wheat/paddy straw and maize, sorghum or bajra stover – ruminants in India tend to produce 50-100% higher methane than their industrialized country counterparts.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.Consider the following:

    1. Carbon monoxide
    2. Methane
    3. Ozone
    4. Sulphur dioxide

    Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 1 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Back2Basics: CO2 equivalents

    • Each greenhouse gas (GHG) has a different global warming potential (GWP) and persists for a different length of time in the atmosphere.
    • The three main greenhouse gases (along with water vapour) and their 100-year global warming potential (GWP) compared to carbon dioxide are:

    1 x – carbon dioxide (CO2)

    25 x – methane (CH4) – I.e. Releasing 1 kg of CH4into the atmosphere is about equivalent to releasing 25 kg of CO2

    298 x – nitrous oxide (N2O)

    • Water vapour is not considered to be a cause of man-made global warming because it does not persist in the atmosphere for more than a few days.
    • There are other greenhouse gases which have far greater global warming potential (GWP) but are much less prevalent. These are sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
    • There are a wide variety of uses for SF6, HFCs, and PFCs but they have been most commonly used as refrigerants and for fire suppression.
    • Many of these compounds also have a depleting effect on ozone in the upper atmosphere.

  • Discrete Auroras on Mars

    The UAE’s Hope spacecraft, which is orbiting Mars since February this year, has captured images of glowing atmospheric lights in the Red Planet’s night sky, known as discrete auroras.

    What causes an Aurora on Earth?

    • Auroras are caused when charged particles ejected from the Sun’s surface — called the solar wind — enter the Earth’s atmosphere.
    • These particles are harmful, and our planet is protected by the geomagnetic field, which preserves life by shielding us from the solar wind.
    • However, at the north and south poles, some of these solar wind particles are able to continuously stream down, and interact with different gases in the atmosphere to cause a display of light in the night sky.
    • This display, known as an aurora, is seen from the Earth’s high latitude regions (called the auroral oval), and is active all year round.

    Where are they observed on Earth?

    • In the northern part of our globe, the polar lights are called aurora borealis or Northern Lights and are seen from the US (Alaska), Canada, Iceland, Greenland, Norway, Sweden and Finland.
    • In the south, they are called aurora australis or southern lights and are visible from high latitudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand and Australia.

    So, how are Martian auroras different?

    • Unlike auroras on Earth, which are seen only near the north and south poles, discrete auroras on Mars are seen all around the planet at night time.
    • Unlike Earth, which has a strong magnetic field, the Martian magnetic field has largely died out.
    • This is because the molten iron at the interior of the planet– which produces magnetism– has cooled.
    • However, the Martian crust, which hardened billions of years ago when the magnetic field still existed, retains some magnetism.
    • So, in contrast with Earth, which acts like one single bar magnet, magnetism on Mars is unevenly distributed, with fields strewn across the planet and differing in direction and strength.
    • These disjointed fields channel the solar wind to different parts of the Martian atmosphere, creating “discrete” auroras over the entire surface of the planet as charged particles interact with atoms and molecules in the sky– as they do on Earth.

    Why is it important to study them?

    • Studying Martian auroras is important for scientists, for it can offer clues as to why the Red Planet lost its magnetic field and thick atmosphere– among the essential requirements for sustaining life.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.Which region of Mars has a densely packed river deposit indicating this planet had water 3.5 billion years ago?

    (a) Aeolis Dorsa

    (b) Tharsis

    (c) Olympus Mons

    (d) Hellas

    Back2Basics:

    Hope Orbiter

    • The Hope Probe, the Arab world’s first mission to Mars, took off from Earth in July last year, and has been orbiting the Red Planet since February.
    • The primary objective of the mission is to study Martian weather dynamics.
    • By correlating the lower atmosphere and upper atmosphere conditions, the probe will look into how weather changes the escape of hydrogen and oxygen into space.
    • By measuring how much hydrogen and oxygen is spilling into space, scientists will be able to look into why Mars lost so much of its early atmosphere and liquid water.
    • It is expected to create the first complete portrait of the planet’s atmosphere.
    • With the information gathered during the mission, scientists will have a better understanding of the climate dynamics of different layers of Mars’ atmosphere.

    Mars

    • Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, being larger than only Mercury.
    • In English, Mars carries the name of the Roman god of war and is often referred to as the “Red Planet”.
    • The latter refers to the effect of the iron oxide prevalent on Mars’s surface, which gives it a reddish appearance distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye.
    • Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, with surface features reminiscent of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth.
    • The days and seasons are comparable to those of Earth, because the rotational period, as well as the tilt of the rotational axis relative to the ecliptic plane, is similar.
    • Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System.

  • Black Hole swallows Neutron Star

    In an entirely strange phenomenon, astronomers have spotted two neutron stars being swallowed by different black holes.

    What are Black Holes?

    • A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it.
    • Neutron stars and black holes are among the most extreme objects in the universe. They are the fossil relics of massive dead stars.
    • When a star that is more than eight times as massive as the Sun runs out of fuel, it undergoes a spectacular explosion called a supernova.
    • What remains can be a neutron star or a black hole.

    There is no upper limit to how massive a black hole can be, but all black holes have two things in common: a point of no return at their surface called an “event horizon”, from which not even light can escape and a point at their centre called a “singularity”, at which the laws of physics as we understand them break down.

    What about Neutron stars?

    • Neutron stars are typically between 1.5 and two times as massive as the Sun but are so dense that all their mass is packed into an object the size of a city.
    • At this density, atoms can no longer sustain their structure and dissolve into a stream of free quarks and gluons: the building blocks of protons and neutrons.

    What is the news observation?

    • Gravitational waves are produced when celestial objects collide and the ensuing energy creates ripples in the fabric of space-time which carry all the way to detectors on Earth.
    • The reverberations from the two celestial objects were picked up using a global network of gravitational wave detectors.

    What makes this strange phenomenon?

    • This is the first time scientists have seen gravitational waves from a neutron star and a black hole.
    • Previous gravitational wave detections have spotted black holes colliding, and neutron stars merging but not one of each.

    Why study this?

    • Neutron star-black hole systems allow us to piece together the evolutionary history of stars.
    • Gravitational-wave astronomers are like stellar fossil-hunters, using the relics of exploded stars to understand how massive stars form, live and die.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.“Event Horizon” is related to (CSP 2018):

    (a) Telescope

    (b) Black hole

    (c) Solar glares

    (d) None of the above

  • What is the Human Genome Project?

    Since the release of the draft human genome sequence in 2001, sections were left unsequenced, and some sequence information was incorrect. Now, two decades later, we have a much more complete version.

    What is the human genome sequence?

    • The human genome sequence is contained in our DNA and is made up of long chains of “base pairs” that form our 23 chromosomes.
    • Along our chromosomes are the base pair sequences that form our 30,000 genes.
    • All humans share a great degree of similarity in their genome sequences – the same genes are ordered in the same manner across the same chromosomes.
    • Each of us is unique (except for identical twins) in terms of the exact base pair sequence that makes up our genes and thus our DNA/chromosomes.
    • It is this similarity that, in a genetic sense, defines us as “human” and the specific variation that defines us as individuals.

    The Human Genome Project

    • As early as the 1980s, momentum was gathering behind activities that supported, and would eventually define, the Human Genome Project.
    • Conversations had turned into workshops that likened characterization of the human genome to characterization of the human anatomy that had centuries earlier revolutionized the practice of medicine.
    • In 1990, with continued support from the US and widespread international collaboration and cooperation, the $3 billion dollar Human Genome Project was launched.
    • The project aimed to determine the sequence of the human genome within 15 years.
    • By 2000 (well ahead of schedule) a working draft of the human genome was announced.
    • This was followed by regular updates and refinements and today we all have access to a human “reference genome sequence”.

    Why did it take 20 years?

    • Much of the newly sequenced material is the “heterochromatic” part of the genome.
    • This is more “tightly packed” than the euchromatic genome and contains many highly repetitive sequences that are very challenging to read accurately.
    • These regions were once thought not to contain any important genetic information but they are now known to contain genes that are involved in fundamentally important processes such as the formation of organs during embryonic development.
    • Among the 200 million newly sequenced base pairs are an estimated 115 genes predicted to be involved in producing proteins.

    Two key factors made the completion of the human genome possible:

    1. Choosing a very special cell type
    • The new sequence was created using human cells derived from a very rare type of tissue called a complete hydatidiform mole, which occurs when a fertilized egg loses all the genetic material contributed to it by the mother.
    • Most cells contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent and each parent’s chromosome contributing a different DNA sequence.
    • A cell from a complete hydatidiform mole has two copies of the father’s chromosomes only, and the genetic sequence of each pair of chromosomes is identical.
    • This makes the full genome sequence much easier to piece together.
    1. Advances in sequencing technology
    • A new method called “shotgun sequencing”, involved breaking the genome into very small fragments of about 200 base pairs, cloning them inside bacteria, deciphering their sequences, and then piecing them back together like a giant jigsaw.
    • This was the main reason the original draft covered only the euchromatic regions of the genome — only these regions could be reliably sequenced using this method.
    • The latest sequence was deduced using two complementary new DNA-sequencing technologies.

    Is the genome now completely sequenced?

    • Well, no. An obvious omission is the Y chromosome, because the complete hydatidiform mole cells used to compile this sequence contained two identical copies of the X chromosome.
    • However, this work is underway and the researchers anticipate their method can also accurately sequence the Y chromosome, despite it having highly repetitive sequences.
    • Even though sequencing the (almost) complete genome of a human cell is an extremely impressive landmark, it is just one of several crucial steps towards fully understanding humans’ genetic diversity.

    What’s next?

    • The next job will be to study the genomes of diverse populations (the complete hydatidiform mole cells were European).
    • Once the new technology has matured it will be better positioned to make a more significant impact on our understanding of human history, biology and health.
    • Both care and technological development are needed to ensure this research is conducted with a full understanding of the diversity of the human genome to prevent health disparities.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.With reference to the recent developments in science, which one of the following statements is not correct?

    (a) Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different species.

    (b) Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in laboratories.

    (c) A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory.

    (d) Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes.

  • [pib] What are Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) Explosion?

    The emission from the most notable Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) explosion away from 4.5 billion light-years has been traced by Indian researchers.

    What are GRB Explosions?

    • GRBs are immensely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies.
    • They are the brightest and most energetic electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe.
    • Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours.
    • After an initial flash of gamma rays, a longer-lived “afterglow” is usually emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).
    • The intense radiation of most observed GRBs is thought to be released during a supernova or superluminous supernova as a high-mass star implodes to form a neutron star or a black hole.

    What makes GRB special?

    • The explosions are both extremely energetic (a typical burst releases as much energy in a few seconds as the Sun will in its entire 10-billion-year lifetime) and extremely rare.
    • All observed GRBs have originated from outside the Milky Way galaxy, although a related class of phenomena, soft gamma repeater flares, are associated with magnetars within the Milky Way.
    • It has been hypothesized that a gamma-ray burst in the Milky Way, pointing directly towards the Earth, could cause a mass extinction event.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidences for the continued expansion of universe? (CSP 2012)
    1. Detection of microwaves in space
    2. Observation of red shift phenomenon in space
    3. Movement of asteroids in space
    4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space
    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4

    (d) None of the above can be cited as evidence.

  • Covid-19 Delta-plus Variant

    The Maharashtra government has tightened the Covid-19 unlocking process in the wake of a rise in cases of the Delta Plus variant.

    What is Delta Plus?

    • A variant that has emerged as a new threat, especially in India, Delta Plus (B.1.617.2.1/(AY.1) is a new mutant strain of the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2.
    • It is technically the next generation of SARS-COV-2.
    • The Delta variant that was first detected in India eventually became a huge problem for the whole world.
    • However, the Delta Plus variant, at present, is limited to smaller areas in the country. This mutant of Delta was first detected in Europe in March 2021, but it came to light on June 13.
    • Although it is still under investigation, experts believe that the Delta Plus variant has increased transmissibility.

    What is known so far?

    • The new Delta plus variant has been formed due to a mutation in the Delta or B.1.617.2 variant.
    • Delta Plus (AY.1) is resistant to monoclonal antibodies cocktail.
    • Since it’s a new variant, its severity is still unknown.
    • 63 genomes of Delta (B.1.617.2) with the new K417N mutation have been identified by the GISAID (global science initiative) so far.
    • The mutation is in the spike protein of SARS-COV-2, which helps the virus enter and infect the human cells.
    • People reported symptoms like headaches, sore throats, runny noses, and fever.

    Are COVID-19 vaccines effective against the Delta Plus variant?

    • Medical experts say it is too early to predict the effectiveness of the existing vaccines on the new variant.
    • A detailed study would be required to establish any effect of the mutant on the immune system.
    • However, Union Health Ministry says that both Indian vaccines — Covishield and Covaxin are effective against the Delta variant.
    • There is fear that this new variant Delta Plus may spark the third wave of COVID-19, but there is a very low incidence of such cases, so there is no certainty.

  • First-ever genetically modified rubber planted in Assam

    A Rubber Board research farm on the outskirts of Guwahati now sports the world’s first genetically modified (GM) rubber plant tailored for the climatic conditions in the Northeast.

    GM rubber

    • The GM rubber has additional copies of the gene MnSOD, or manganese-containing superoxide dismutase, inserted in the plant.
    • The plant was developed at the Kerala-based Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII).
    • It is expected to tide over the severe cold conditions during winter — a major factor affecting the growth of young rubber plants in the region.

    Why need GM rubber?

    • Natural rubber is a native of warm humid Amazon forests and is not naturally suited for the colder conditions in the Northeast, which is one of the largest producers of rubber in India.
    • Growth of young rubber plants remains suspended during the winter months, which are also characterized by progressive drying of the soil.
    • This is the reason for the long immaturity period of this crop in the region.

    What does MnSOD gene offer?

    • The MnSOD gene has the ability to protect plants from the adverse effects of severe environmental stresses such as cold and drought.
    • Laboratory studies conducted at the RRII showed the GM rubber plants overexpressed the MnSOD gene as expected, offering protection to the cells.
    • The plant is thus expected to establish well and grow fast in the region.
    • There was no risk of genes flowing from the GM rubber into any other native species, a concern often raised by environmental groups against GM plants in general.

  • BT Cotton adoption in Punjab has resulted in net economic, environmental benefits

    Amid the perpetual debate surrounding BT cotton’s positive and negative impacts, a recent study has said its adoption in Punjab in the past over a decade has resulted in net economic and environmental benefits.

    Background

    • BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton has been commercially grown in India for the past 19 years.
    • The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) approved the release of BT cotton for commercial cultivation in 2002 in western and southern parts of the country.
    • In Punjab, BT cotton was released for cultivation in 2005.
    • Before the release, it was adopted by 72% farmers on 22% of the cotton area. However, a lot of questions have been raised recently on its impact.

    BT cotton in India

    • BT cotton is a genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically modified pest resistant plant cotton variety, which produces an insecticide to combat bollworm.
    • Strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce over 200 different BT toxins, each harmful to different insects.
    • Most notably, BT toxins are insecticidal to the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, cotton bollworms and flies but are harmless to other forms of life.
    • In 2002, a joint venture between Monsanto and Mahyco introduced BT cotton to India.
    • In 2011, India grew the largest GM cotton crop at 10.6 million hectares.

    Issues with BT cotton

    • In India, BT cotton has been enveloped in controversies due to its supposed failure to reduce the need for pesticides and increase yield.
    • The link between the introduction of BT cotton to India and a surge in farmer suicides has been refuted by other studies with decreased farmer suicides since BT cotton was introduced.
    • BT cotton accounts for 93% of cotton grown in India.
    • Maharashtra banned the sale and distribution of BT cotton in 2012, to promote local Indian seeds, which demand less water, fertilizers and pesticide input.

    What is the new study about?

    Success of BT in Punjab

    • The research was funded by the Agricultural Extension Division of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research under extramural project “Impact evaluation of integrated pest management technologies”.
    • It found that since the commercialization of BT cotton:
    1. there has been reduction in insecticide use by volume and applications,
    2. decline in environmental and human health impact associated with insecticide use,
    3. more reduction in the use of highly hazardous and riskiest insecticides, and
    4. reduction in the expenses associated with insecticide use.
    5. Cotton yields in the past 13 years have been stable, the only exception being 2015

    Now its’ time to answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.In India, the use of carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate and triazophos is viewed with apprehension. These chemicals are used as: (CSP 2017)

    (a) Pesticides in agriculture

    (b) Preservatives in processed foods

    (c) Fruit-ripening agents

    (d) Moisturizing agents in cosmetics

  • What is Gain-of-Function Research?

    With the re-emergence of the Wuhan lab-leak origin theory, questions are also being raised on what gain-of-function research is, and whether the benefits of conducting such research outweigh the risks of pathogens escaping from labs.

    What is gain-of-function research?

    • In virology, gain-of-function research involves deliberately altering an organism in the lab, altering a gene, or introducing a mutation in a pathogen to study its transmissibility, virulence and immunogenicity.
    • It is believed that this allows researchers to study potential therapies, vaccine possibilities and ways to control the disease better in future.
    • Gain-of-function research involves manipulations that make certain pathogenic microbes more deadly or more transmissible.
    • This is done by genetically engineering the virus and by allowing them to grow in different growth mediums, a technique called as serial passage.

    Antithesis to this theory

    • There is also ‘loss-of-function’ research, which involves inactivating mutations, resulting in a significant loss of original function, or no function to the pathogen.
    • When mutations occur, they alter the structure of the virus that is being studied, resulting in altered functions. Some of these significant mutations might weaken the virus or enhance its function.

    Associated risks

    • Some forms of gain-of-function research reportedly carry inherent biosafety and biosecurity risks and are thus referred to as ‘dual-use research of concern’ (DURC).
    • This indicates that while the research may result in benefits for humanity, there is also the potential to cause harm — accidental or deliberate escape of these altered pathogens from labs may cause even pandemics.

    Essential component of vaccine development

    • The current medical countermeasures are often insufficient largely because of resistance mechanisms that lead to ‘escape mutants’, i.e., drug-resistant strains.
    • There is, hence, a continual need to develop new antiviral drugs and additional options, such as immunotherapy, based on neutralizing monoclonal antibodies.
    • Ultimately, gain-of-function studies, which enhance viral yield and immunogenicity, are required for vaccine development.

    What is the situation in India?

    • In India, all activities related to genetically engineered organisms or cells and hazardous microorganisms and products are regulated as per the “Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules, 1989”.
    • Last year, the Department of Biotechnology issued guidelines for the establishment of containment facilities, called ‘Biosafety labs’, at levels two and three.
    • The notification provides operational guidance on the containment of biohazards and levels of biosafety that all institutions involved in research, development and handling of these microorganisms must comply with.

    Should research continue?

    • Scientists have differing opinions on the issue, particularly since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic.
    • While those on the side of gain-of-function research say that it makes science and governments battle-ready for future pandemics, there have been a rising number of calls to suspend such research.
    • Proponents of gain-of-function research believe that “nature is the ultimate bioterrorist and we need to do all we can to stay one step ahead”.
    • Some researchers thinks it is time to stop such research.
    • Science policymakers “must wrestle with defining the rare instances in which the benefits of experiments that enhance a virus’s capacity to survive and flourish in human hosts outweigh any risks.