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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Magnetoseismology of Sun’s Corona

    A group of researchers has measured the global magnetic field of the Sun’s corona for the very first time.

    Try this PYQ:

    The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, `String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of (CSP 2017)-

    (a) Observation and understanding of the Universe

    (b) Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses

    (c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth

    (d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth

    Basis of the research

    • The properties of waves depend on the medium in which they travel.
    • By measuring certain wave properties and doing a reverse calculation, some of the properties of the medium through which they have travelled can be obtained.
    • Waves can be longitudinal waves (for example, sound waves) or transverse waves (for example, ripples on a lake surface).
    • The waves that propagate through magnetic plasma are called magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves.
    • From the theoretical calculation, it can be shown that the properties of the transverse MHD wave are directly related to the strength of magnetic fields and the density of the corona.

    How was the Magnetic Field measured?

    • The team used a technique known as coronal seismology or magnetoseismology to measure the coronal magnetic field which has been known for a few decades.
    • This method requires the measurement of the properties of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves and the density of the corona simultaneously.
    • In the past, these techniques were occasionally used in small regions of the corona, or some coronal loops due to limitations of our instruments/and proper data analysis techniques.

    The CoMP instrument

    • The team used the improved measurements of the Coronal Multi-channel Polarimeter (CoMP) and advanced data analysis to measure the coronal magnetic field.
    • CoMP is an instrument operated by High Altitude Observatory, of the U.S.
    • It is located at Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, near the summit of that volcano on the big island of Hawaii.

    Why measure the solar magnetic field?

    • It is very important to measure the corneal magnetic fields regularly since the solar corona is highly dynamic and varies within seconds to a minute time scale. There are two main puzzles about the Sun which this advancement will help address:

    (1) Coronal heating problem

    • Though the core of the Sun is at a temperature of about 15 million degrees, its outer layer, the photosphere is a mere 5700 degrees hot.
    • However, its corona or outer atmosphere, which stretches up to several million kilometres beyond its surface, is much, much hotter than the surface.
    • It is at a temperature of one million degrees or more.
    • What causes the atmosphere of the Sun (corona) to heat up again, though the surface (photosphere) is cooler than the interior? That is the question which has baffled solar physicists.
    • Popular attempts to explain this puzzle invoke the magnetic field of the corona. Hence the present work will help understand and verify these theories better.

    (2) Mechanisms of eruptions of the Sun

    • The eruptions on the Sun include solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
    • These are driven by magnetic reconnections happening in the Sun’s corona.
    • Magnetic reconnection is a process where oppositely polarity magnetic field lines connect and some of the magnetic energy is converted to heat energy and also kinetic energy which leads to the generation of heating, solar flares, solar jets, etc.

  • Importance of the post academic research

    Post-academic research have a direct bearing on national development. India needs to focus on it along with academic research. This article explains this issue.

    Context

    • The Government of India is in the process of revisiting the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Policy.
    • At this stage we need to ponder the question: what kind of research should be funded?

    How to measure the maturity level of a particular technology?

    • Experts have come up with frameworks and terminology to provide a comprehensive picture and avoid any value judgement.
    • One approach was proposed by NASA in the form of Technology Readiness Levels (TRL).
    • TRL-1 corresponds to observation of basic principles. Its result is publications.
    • TRL-2 corresponds to formulation of technology at the level of concepts.
    • Then the TRL framework advances to proof of concept, validation in a laboratory environment, followed by a relevant environment, and then to prototype demonstration, and ending with actual deployment.
    • An alternative is to use the terminology ‘Academic Research (AR)’, and ‘Post-Academic Research (PAR)’.
    • To provide some granularity, one can divide PAR into early-stage PAR, and late-stage PAR.
    • Late-stage PAR has to be done by large laboratories (national or those supported by industry).
    • AR and early-stage PAR can be done at higher education institutions and large laboratories.

    Importance of Post-Academic Research(PAR)

    • From the perspective of national development, pursuit of AR alone, while necessary, is not sufficient.
    • AR and PAR, when pursued together and taken to their logical conclusion, will result in a product or a process,
    • Or it can also result in a better clinical practice, or a scientifically robust understanding of human health and disease, or provide inputs for a policy decision.

    Issues in comparing investment in research among countries

    • 1) We cannot compare data with other countries without having correspondence between India’s data and data reported by others.
    • Countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report research statistics according to the Frascati Manual.
    • 2) India has to decide where to increase investment: in AR or in PAR.

    Research and national development

    • Investment in research can translate into national development only through pursuit of PAR.
    • Our industry has not reached a stage where they can absorb research being done by higher education institutions.
    • This reveals that research being pursued is either not addressing national needs or is limited to AR.

    Way forward

    • Judging the growth of Science-and-Technology based only on publications (e.g. research papers) provides an incomplete picture.
    • We should increasing the technology intensity of industry, which was identified as one of the goals of the STI policy issued in 2013.
    • This needs reiteration and a mechanism should be devised to monitor progress with the objective of becoming an ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’.
    • The STI policy should emphasise PAR to ensure that investment in research results in economic growth.
    • To motivate the research community to pursue at least early-stage PAR, the reward system needs significant reorientation.
    • Academics in higher education institutions pursuing AR should pursue early-stage PAR themselves, or team up with those who are keen to pursue PAR.

    Consider the question “Examine the factors that responsible for the lack of research and development in India? Also, elaborate on the importance of post-academic research in the country.”

    Conclusion

    These factors are sufficient to indicate that academic research is necessary, but not sufficient and we must focus on PAR adequately.

  • SN5 Starship by SpaceX

    SpaceX has successfully test-launched its “Mars ship”, a stainless steel test vehicle called SN5, and which is a part of the Starship spacecraft.

    Elon Musk’s aerospace company has been putting continuous wins on the board ever since it became the first privately funded group to put a payload in Earth orbit.

    What is Starship?

    • Designed by SpaceX, Starship is a spacecraft and super-heavy booster rocket meant to act as a reusable transportation system for crew and cargo to the Earth’s orbit, Moon and Mars.
    • SpaceX has described Starship as “the world’s most powerful launch vehicle” with an ability to carry over 100 metric tonnes to the Earth’s orbit.
    • Starship has been under development since 2012 and is a part of Space X’s central mission to make interplanetary travel accessible and affordable and to become the first private company to do so.

    So what all can Starship do?

    • SpaceX is planning its first cargo mission to the red planet by 2022 and by 2024, the company wants to fly four ships including two cargo and two crewed ones to Mars.
    • Once functional, the Starship spacecraft will enter Mars’ atmosphere at a speed of 7.5 km per second and will be designed to withstand multiple entries.
    • Starship is also expected to help carry large amounts of cargo to the Moon, for human spaceflight development and research.
    • Beyond the Moon, the spacecraft is being designed for carrying crew and cargo for interplanetary missions as well.

    A quest for reusability

    • Therefore, the company is working on building a fleet of reusable launch vehicles, capable of carrying humans to Mars and other destinations in the solar system.
    • Reusability is at the heart of making interplanetary travel accessible.

  • Nagara Architecture of Ayodhya’s Ram Temple

    The grand temple at Rama Janmabhoomi in Ayodhya will follow the Nagara style of temple architecture.

    Note the various features of the Nagara and Vesara style of temple architecture from your basic references.

    What is Nagara style of temple architecture?

    The basic form of a Hindu temple contains the following architectural elements:

    1. Garbhagriha – the small room where the principal deity/deities of the temple reside
    2. Mandapa – the portico or hall at the entrance of the temple generally designed to house a large number of people
    3. Shikhara – the mountain like spire which can have different shapes from pyramidal to curvilinear
    4. Vahana – the mount of the main deity placed generally in line of sight from Garbhagriha
    • In this style, the temple is generally constructed on an upraised platform called Jagati.
    • Mandapas are present in front of the These are adorned with the Shikhara, the tallest one being above the Garbhagriha.
    • The shikhara over the mandapas in the pictures of the Ayodhya Ram temple can be seen having a square base, and a rectilinear outline.
    • This is called the phamsana-style shikhara. Note that the mandapa shikhara right at the entrance has an octagonal base.

    Similar to Khajuraho Temple

    • There are different types of Shikhara found in Indian temples.
    • A comparison with Khajuraho Vishwanath temple, also built in Nagara style, shows the similarity between the two.
    • Note that the main shikhara of the two are remarkably similar.
    • They rise upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an Amalaka topped with a Kalasha. This is called the Latina-style shikhara.

    Note: This newscard is an excerpt from an original article published in Swarajya Magazine.

    Back2Basics: The Ramjanmabhoomi Case

  • What is Pyrolysis?

    Plastic from used personal protective equipment (PPE) can be transformed into renewable liquid fuels using chemical a process called pyrolysis, says a new study.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.In the context of which one of the following are the terms ‘pyrolysis and plasma gasification’ mentioned? (CSP 2019)

    (a) Extraction of rare earth elements

    (b) Natural gas extraction technologies

    (c) Hydrogen fuel-based automobiles

    (d) Waste-to-energy technologies

    What is Pyrolysis?

    • Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere.
    • It involves a change in chemical composition. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyro “fire” and lysis “separating”.
    • It is most commonly used in the treatment of organic materials. It is one of the processes involved in charring wood.
    • It is considered as the first step in the processes of gasification or combustion.

    How does it work?

    • In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces volatile products and leaves a solid residue enriched in carbon, char.
    • Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves mostly carbon as the residue, is called carbonization.
    • The process is used heavily in the chemical industry, for example, to produce ethylene, many forms of carbon, and other chemicals from petroleum, coal, and even wood, to produce coke from coal.

    Applications

    • Aspirational applications of pyrolysis would convert biomass into syngas and biochar, waste plastics back into usable oil, or waste into safely disposable substances.

    Limitations and Concerns

    • The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.
    • Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics.
    • There is concern that systems that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the potential to create products of incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans.
    • These compounds are extremely toxic in the parts per trillion range.
    • The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on the waste treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt may be hazardous and require special care in disposal.
    • Pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating inorganics from the contaminated medium.
    • Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures associated with the process, but they are not destroyed.
    • When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and contaminated water.
    • These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment, storage, and disposal.

  • SpaceX’s Crew Dragon capsule ‘Endeavour’

    Two NASA astronauts returned to Earth from the International Space Station (ISS) in a dramatic, retro-style splashdown, their capsule parachuting into the Gulf of Mexico to finish an unprecedented test flight.

    We can get a match the pair type question in prelims asking various space missions and their purposes. Make note of similar space missions from here.

    Crew Dragon

    • Crew Dragon is a part of the Dragon 2, a class of reusable spacecraft developed and manufactured by American aerospace manufacturer SpaceX.
    • It is the fifth class of US spacecraft to take human beings into orbit, after the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Space Shuttle programs.
    • The rocket, named Falcon 9, which carried the spaceship into the orbit, was also built by SpaceX.
    • It is done under the Demo-2 Mission of NASA and SpaceX.

    Demo-2: What is the mission?

    • The Demo-2 mission is part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program with the aim of developing reliable and cost-effective access to and from the ISS.
    • Essentially, the lift-off is a flight test to certify if SpaceX’s crew transportation system can be used to ferry crew to and from the space station regularly.

    What makes it a special event?

    • It was the first splashdown by U.S. astronauts in 45 years, with the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to carry people to and from orbit.
    • The last time NASA astronauts returned from space to water was on July 24, 1975, in the Pacific to end a joint U.S.-Soviet mission known as Apollo-Soyuz.
    • The return clears the way for possible tourist flights in the near future.

    Back2Basics: SpaceX

    • Space Exploration Technologies Corp., trading as SpaceX, is a private American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation Services Company headquartered in Hawthorne, California.
    • It was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs to enable the colonization of Mars.
    • It has developed several launch vehicles and the Dragon spacecraft.

  • What are Time Capsules?

    Ahead of the laying of the foundation stone for a temple, claims and denials have emerged about plans to put in a time capsule, or ‘Kaal Patra’.

    Do you know?

    A rubidium standard or rubidium atomic clock is the most inexpensive, compact, and widely produced atomic clock, used to control the frequency of television stations, cell phone base stations, in test equipment, and global navigation satellite systems like GPS.

    What is a Time Capsule?

    • It is a container of any size or shape, which accommodates documents, photos and artefacts typical of the current era and is buried underground, for future generations to unearth.
    • The time capsule requires special engineering so that the contents don’t decay, even if pulled out after a century.
    • Material such as aluminium and stainless steel are used for the encasing, and documents are often reproduced on acid-free paper.
    • While the term “time capsule” was coined in the 20th century, among the earliest examples of one dates back to 1777, found by historians inside the statue of Jesus Christ in Spain during its restoration.

    There’s a global society:

    International Time Capsule Society

    • The International Time Capsule Society (ITCS), based in the US and formed in 1990, is now defunct but continues estimating the number of time capsules in the world.
    • As per its database, there are “10,000-15,000 times capsules worldwide”.

    Are there any time capsules in India?

    • There have been a number of prominent examples.
    • One time capsule, outside the Red Fort and placed underground in 1972 by then PM Indira Gandhi, was dug out by the subsequent government.
    • Other time capsules are at a school in Mumbai, IIT-Kanpur, LPU in Jalandhar, and Mahatma Mandir in Gandhinagar.
    • The Red Fort time capsule was supposed to be dug out after 1,000 years.

    Significance of time capsules

    • Historians often criticize the idea of being motivated.
    • This exercise is inevitably a subjective exercise, geared towards glorification not to construct the real picture.
    • All historians look at this time capsule exercise with suspicion.
    • It’s not a valid historical method — who decides what matter, what artefacts, written documents are going into it?

  • William Jones and his linguistic studies

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.

    Try this PYQ from CSP 2016:

    Q.Who of the following had first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka?

    (a) Georg Buhier

    (b) James Prinsep

    (c) Max Muller

    (d) William Jones

    William Jones

    • William Jones was appointed as a judge on the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal,
    • In the next couple of years, Jones established himself as an authority on ancient Indian language and culture, a field of study that was hitherto untouched.
    • He is particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among European and Indo-Aryan languages, which he coined as Indo-European.
    • He is also credited for establishing the Asiatic Society of Bengal in the year 1784.

    His linguistic studies

    • Jones’ was the first to suggest that Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages had a common root and that indeed they may all be further related, in turn, to Gothic and the Celtic languages, as well as to Persian.
    • He also suggested that Sanskrit ‘was introduced to India by conquerors from other kingdoms in some very remote age’ displacing ‘the pure Hindi’ of north India
    • His claim rested on the evidence of several Sanskrit words that had similarities with Greek and Latin.

    Some examples of his propositions

    • As he studied the languages further, it became clearer that apart from Greek and Latin, Sanskrit words could be found in most other European languages.
    • For instance, the Sanskrit word for ‘three’, that is ‘trayas’, is similar to the Latin ‘tres’ and the Greek ‘treis’. Similarly, the Sanskrit for ‘snake’, is ‘sarpa’, which shares a phonetic link with ‘serpens’ in Latin.
    • For instance, ‘mata’ or mother in Sanskrit, is ‘mutter’ in German. ‘Dan’ or ‘to give’ in Sanskrit is ‘donor’ in Spanish.

  • What is Black Rain?

    Ahead of the 75th anniversary of Hiroshima, a Japanese court has recognised 84 survivors of the post-nuclear explosion “black rain” as the atomic bomb survivors. This would enable them to avail free medical benefits.

    Try this question from CSP 2011:

    Q.Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment by:

    (a) Carbon dioxide and nitrogen

    (b) Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide

    (c) Ozone and carbon dioxide

    (d) Nitrous oxide and Sulphur dioxide

    What is Black Rain?

    • An estimated 69 per cent of the buildings in Hiroshima were destroyed by the atomic bomb.
    • The debris and soot from this, mixed with the radioactive fallout from the bomb, raised high into the atmosphere in the form of a mushroom cloud.
    • This material combined with the vapour in the atmosphere and came down as dark drops of liquid that have been called black rain.
    • Survivors of the black rain described it as consisting of large, greasy drops that are much heavier than normal raindrops.
    • It is full of highly radioactive material, and studies have shown that exposure to it can result in serious illnesses.

    What was its effect?

    • A study conducted in the year 1945 itself showed that black rain had come down as far as 29 km away from ground zero.
    • The rain contaminated everything it came in contact with, and dead fish were reported floating in water bodies and severely ill cattle were seen lying in the fields.
    • It has caused acute radiation symptoms (ARS) in many who were exposed to it, with reports of people suffering from nausea and diarrhoea for weeks.
    • Other ARS include fever, sore throat and loss of hair. Over time, many people who were exposed to black rain have developed cancer.

  • [pib] Atal Innovation Mission launches ‘AIM-iCREST’

    NITI Aayog’s Atal Innovation Mission (AIM), has launched AIM iCREST – an Incubator Capabilities enhancement program for a Robust Ecosystem, focused on creating high performing Startups.

    Note the following things about AIM-iCREST

    1) Meaning of the acronym as it gives the central idea of the initiative

    2) Aims and objective

    3) Technological partners

    AIM-iCREST

    • AIM iCREST, as the name suggests, has been designed to enable the incubation ecosystem and act as a growth hack for AIM’s Atal and Established incubators across the country.
    • Under the initiative, the AIM’s incubators are set to be upscaled and provided requisite support to foster the incubation enterprise economy that will help them to significantly enhance their performance.
    • This will be complemented by providing training to entrepreneurs, through technology-driven processes and platforms.
    • The program aims at going beyond incubator capacity building.  This is a first of its kind initiative for advancing innovation at scale in India.

    Various partners

    • AIM has joined hands with Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Wadhwani Foundation – organizations that can lend credible support and expertise in the entrepreneurship and innovation space.
    • These partnerships will provide global expertise and showcase proven best practices to the AIM’s incubator network.

    An initiative for incubators

    • India needs world-class incubators fostering world-class startups leveraging the tremendous innovation talent of our country.
    • For the first time in the Government, the Incubator capacity development program is being extended to the entire portfolio of supported Atal incubators.
    • This programme is unique also in its design – it is a combination of interactive practices in the field of incubation; enabling the incubators to support sustainable and successful startups.

    Back2Basics: Atal Innovation Mission

    • Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) is NITI Aayog’s flagship initiative to promote a culture of innovation and entrepreneurship in India
    • AIM has been established to create and promote an ecosystem of innovation and entrepreneurship in a holistic manner through various initiatives at school, university and industry levels
    • The Atal Innovation Mission has thus two core functions:
    1. Innovation promotion: to provide a platform where innovative ideas are generated.
    2. Entrepreneurship promotion: Wherein innovators would be supported and mentored to become successful entrepreneurs at Incubation Centres.