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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Pyrite

    Why in the News?

    Scientists have discovered the oldest known evidence of fire making by prehistoric humans in England. The findings include heated clay, heat shattered flint handaxes and pieces of iron pyrite, which can generate sparks when struck against flint.

    About Pyrite

    • Pyrite is a brass yellow mineral with a bright metallic lustre.
       • Chemical composition: Iron sulfide (FeS₂).
       • It is the most common sulfide mineral found on Earth.
       • The name is derived from the Greek word pyr meaning fire, as pyrite emits sparks when struck by metal or flint.
       • Nodules of pyrite found in prehistoric burial mounds suggest its early use in fire making.
       • Commonly known as “Fool’s Gold” due to its superficial resemblance to gold.

    Distinguishing Pyrite from Gold

    • Pyrite is much lighter than gold.
       • It is harder than gold and cannot be scratched with a fingernail or a pocket knife.
       • Gold is soft, malleable and can be easily scratched.

    Occurrence

    • Found worldwide in diverse geological settings.
       • Occurs in sedimentary deposits, hydrothermal veins and as a constituent of metamorphic rocks.

    Uses of Pyrite

    • Source of iron and sulfur.
       • Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
       • Used to produce iron sulfate.
       • Iron sulfate applications include nutritional supplements, ink, lawn conditioner, water treatment and flocculation, and moss control.
       • Iron sulfate derived from pyrite is used in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia.
       • Some varieties contain microscopic gold and can be mined as a gold ore.

    Prelims Pointer

    • Pyrite’s ability to produce sparks made it an important material for early human fire technology.
    Ilmenite and rutile, abundantly available in certain coastal tracts of India, are rich sources of which one of the following? (2023)

    (a) Aluminium 

    (b) Copper 

    (c) Iron 

    (d) Titanium

  • Agentic AI  

    Why in the News?

    Microsoft Chairman and CEO Satya Nadella recently noted that India is witnessing strong momentum in the adoption and deployment of artificial intelligence, particularly agentic AI applications.

    About Agentic AI

    Agentic AI is an advanced form of artificial intelligence that emphasises autonomous decision-making and action. It is designed to act independently in a goal driven manner with minimal human intervention.

    Core Concept

    • Based on AI agents that simulate human-like decision making
     • Capable of setting goals, planning steps, and executing tasks on its own
     • Goes beyond traditional AI systems that mainly respond to prompts or analyse data

    Prelims Pointers

    • Agentic AI emphasizes autonomy and goal orientation
    • Uses large language models as its reasoning engine
    • Key stages include perception, reasoning, planning, action, and reflection
    • Represents an evolution beyond prompt based AI systems
    With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (2020)

    (1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units

    (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs

    (3) Disease diagnosis

    (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion

    (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • Diving Support Craft A20

    Why in the news?

    The Indian Navy is set to commission Diving Support Craft (DSC) A20 at Kochi under the Southern Naval Command, marking a key milestone in indigenous naval capability.

    About Diving Support Craft A20

    • First vessel of the indigenously designed and constructed Diving Support Craft class
     • Lead ship in a series of five DSCs
     • Built by M s Titagarh Rail Systems Limited, Kolkata
     • Designed for a wide range of diving and underwater missions in coastal waters

    Prelims Pointers

    • DSC A20 is an indigenously built naval auxiliary vessel
    • Builder: Titagarh Rail Systems Limited
    • Hull type: Catamaran
    • Command: Southern Naval Command
    • Focus areas include diving operations, underwater missions, and salvage support
    Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently? (2016)

    (a) Amphibious warfare ship 

    (b) Nuclear-powered submarine 

    (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel 

    (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

  • NSIL and ISRO Technology Transfer 

    Why in the News?

    NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) has so far signed 70 Technology Transfer Agreements (TTAs) to license technologies developed by ISRO to Indian industries.

    About NSIL

    • Commercial arm of the Department of Space (DoS), incorporated under the Companies Act 2013.
    • Mandated to:
      • Commercialise ISRO technologies.
      • Enable industry participation in space missions.
      • Act as the actual licensor of ISRO technologies.

    Technology Transfer Mechanism

    Types of Agreements

    1. Technology Transfer Agreements (TTAs) – Define rights, obligations, and usage of transferred technology.
    2. Non-Disclosure Agreements (NDAs) – Contain explicit confidentiality clauses protecting commercially sensitive information.

    Role of IN-SPACe

    • Acts as a facilitator for Non-Governmental Entities (NGEs).
    • NSIL remains the licensing authority.

    Oversight for Fairness

    • A dedicated Technology Transfer Committee reviews all proposals.
    • Ensures transfers are transparent, equitable, and accountable.

    Transparency and RTI Compliance

    • NSIL is a public authority under RTI Act, 2005.
    • Suo motu disclosure under Section 4:
      • Lists technologies available for transfer.
      • Guidelines and procedures for NGEs.
      • Periodically updated information on technology transfers.

    What Information is Public?

    • Names and details of industries receiving ISRO technologies
       (furnished under RTI and available via ISRO/DoS websites such as URSC, IN-SPACe, NSIL).
    • Media publications also highlight certain transfers.

    Information Exempt from Disclosure

    Under Section 8(1)(d) of the RTI Act, NSIL does not disclose:

    • Commercial terms.
    • Payment details.
    • Copies of agreements.
       These are considered commercially sensitive or strategic.
    With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), Consider the following statements : (2018)

    1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits. 

    2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders. 

    3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) None

  • [11th December 2025] The Hindu OpED: ​​AI must pay: On the DPIIT working paper on AI and Copyright Issues

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialised. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

    Linkage: This topic is relevant because it highlights India’s weak IPR monetisation systems and the need for clear licensing frameworks for AI training. It directly links to the issue of poor commercialization of intellectual property due to inadequate revenue and protection mechanisms.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The rapid expansion of AI models such as LLMs has outpaced global regulatory thinking, especially concerning copyright. India’s new working paper on “AI and Copyright Issues” marks a significant policy moment because it attempts to balance innovation with fair remuneration for content creators.  

    Introduction 

    Large Language Models (LLMs) rely heavily on public text, data, and multimedia scraped from the Internet. This has created tension between AI developers and content producers whose material forms the backbone of AI training datasets. India’s Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) has released a working paper proposing a mandatory licensing framework to ensure remuneration for content creators while keeping AI innovation unhindered. The proposal aims to prevent prolonged litigation, offer a collaborative revenue system, and address the growing disruption in the media landscape.

    Why in the news?

    India’s working paper is significant because it represents the first structured attempt to create a national solution to the global controversy around AI training data and copyright. For years, AI hyperscalers have argued for unrestricted scraping of Internet content, while publishers insisted on licensing and consent. With lawsuits piling up worldwide and no uniform judicial clarity, India’s move is a major shift from unregulated data scraping to a mandatory revenue-sharing model. It highlights the scale of the problem, hundreds of media houses and small publishers risk losing fair compensation as LLMs synthesize new outputs from their work without attribution. The proposal marks a pivot toward balancing AI development with creators’ rights, avoiding a situation that could disadvantage India’s AI ecosystem through excessive restrictions or unchecked exploitation.

    What Drives the Rapid Progress of LLMs?

    1. Iterative advancements in machine learning: Continuous improvements in applied techniques enhance the performance and reasoning ability of LLMs.
    2. Expanding access to global text and multimedia data: Massive publicly available datasets fuel training, improving output depth and sophistication.
    3. Dependence on Internet-scale content: AI firms rely heavily on materials produced by media houses, publishers, and content creators.

    What Is the Core Conflict Between AI Firms and Content Producers?

    1. Free-use argument by AI developers: They claim public Internet content should be freely usable for training, even when outputs are monetized.
    2. Licensing demand from content producers: Reproduction or syndication by AI, directly or indirectly, should require consent and licence fees.
    3. Fierce industry debate: News, entertainment, and book publishing sectors fear uncompensated use of their intellectual property.

    What Does India’s Working Paper Propose?

    1. Mandatory licensing framework: Allows unlimited scraping of public information, but mandates structured payments to a central body.
    2. Non-profit copyright society: Collects royalties from AI developers based on revenues earned through AI models trained on Indian content.
    3. Collaborative revenue-sharing: Ensures creators benefit from the value AI systems extract from their work.

    Why Is the Licensing Model Considered Practical?

    1. Avoids the burden of opting out: Individual content producers lack the power to prevent scraping or enforce restrictions.
    2. Recognizes data processing as a functional reality: AI models synthesize new outputs rather than reproduce original text verbatim.
    3. Addresses inequity concerns: Small publishers may still feel disadvantaged, but a flawed system is preferable to absence of remuneration.

    What Are the Challenges in Implementing the System?

    1. Royalty determination issues: Difficulties in deciding proportional payments, especially between small and large publishers.
    2. Ongoing global litigations: Lawsuits against AI companies continue, and no uniform judicial framework exists yet.
    3. Needless delay is a threat: Waiting for courts to settle the issue only benefits AI firms and worsens market disruption.
    4. Tech industry dissent: Some developers resist additional regulatory burdens but the committee views collaboration as essential.

    Conclusion

    India’s working paper marks an important shift toward a balanced AI-copyright ecosystem. While the proposed licensing structure is imperfect, it offers a practical, collaborative alternative to years of litigation and unregulated data extraction. If supported by the government and refined through stakeholder dialogue, it can ensure that India’s creators, publishers, and AI innovators coexist in a fair and sustainable digital environment.

  • Aditya-L1 Reveals Why the 2024 Solar Storm Behaved Unusually

    Why in the news?

    • In May 2024, Earth experienced the strongest solar storm in over two decades, popularly known as Gannon’s Storm.
    • A collaborative study using Aditya-L1 and six NASA satellites has explained the unusual behaviour and enhanced intensity of this storm.

    What Are CMEs?

    • Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs): Massive bubbles of charged gas and magnetic energy expelled from the Sun.
    • When directed towards Earth, CMEs can:
      • Disturb the magnetosphere
      • Disrupt satellites, communication networks, GPS
      • Trigger geomagnetic storms affecting power grids

    Key Findings of the Study

    1. Collision of Two CMEs

    • Instead of a single CME rope, two CMEs collided in space.
    • This collision compressed and distorted their magnetic structures.

    2. Magnetic Reconnection Inside the CME

    • Magnetic fields inside one CME snapped and rejoined, creating new magnetic pathways. This internal breakup is called magnetic reconnection.
    • Consequences:
      • Sudden reversal and strengthening of magnetic fields
      • Enhanced geomagnetic impact on Earth
      • Acceleration of charged particles detected by satellites

    3. First Multi-Vantage Observation

    • Observations came from Aditya-L1 and six US satellites:
      • NASA Wind
      • ACE
      • THEMIS-C
      • STEREO-A
      • MMS
      • DSCOVR (NASA-NOAA)
    • Enabled simultaneous study of the storm from Earth, Moon, and L1 point.

    4. Discovery of a Giant Reconnection Region

    • Aditya-L1’s precise magnetic field measurements showed:
      • Reconnection region ≈ 1.3 million km across
      • Nearly 100 times Earth’s diameter
    • First recorded instance of such a giant internal magnetic breakup within a CME.
    If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth ? (2022)

    1. GPS and navigation systems could fail. 

    2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions. 

    3. Power grids could be damaged. 

    4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth. 

    5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet. 

    6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed. 

    7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted. 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7

  • To fulfil STEM potential, India must cast a net wider, go to the roots

    Introduction

    India’s STEM ecosystem faces deep-rooted structural constraints even as the government seeks to reform doctoral guidelines and redirect research toward emerging national needs. The debate highlights persistent gaps in funding, fellowships, university governance, research priorities, and industry linkages. 

    Why in the news?

    The issue is significant because the government has asked ministries and departments to re-examine PhD guidelines and shift focus to topics of national relevance. This action comes at a time when existing systemic problems, like delayed fellowship payments, inadequate stipends, poor institutional support, and the absence of industry linkages, have reached a critical point. Several premier institutions have not paid PhD stipends for months, and research fellowships remain stagnant at ₹8,000 per month since 2012 for many categories, sharply contrasting with inflation and rising living costs. 

    Understanding the Roots of India’s STEM Challenges

    What structural issues limit India’s STEM potential?

    1. Weak Research Relevance: Research funded by government departments often lacks direct relevance to national technological needs, reducing innovation output and long-term applicability.
    2. Low Public Visibility: Communication gaps hinder public understanding of how government-funded research benefits society or advances national capability.
    3. Fragmented Institutional Support: Government departments and agencies lack coordinated mechanisms for selecting and nurturing PhD candidates working in critical areas like energy storage, sustainable agriculture, health tech, and battery technologies.

    Why is applied research struggling in India?

    1. Limited Industry Linkages: Applied science breakthroughs, though central to modern technological advances, receive inadequate industry support, reducing opportunities for scale-up.
    2. Insufficient Local Innovation Ecosystems: Historical examples like the laser or optical fibre show how long-lag research becomes transformative. India still lacks comparable mechanisms to nurture such deep-tech research.
    3. Weak Commercialisation Pathways: The absence of industry-academia collaboration limits the transition from early-stage research to viable technologies.

    How do fellowship and salary problems deepen the crisis?

    1. Delayed Payments: University-funded PhDs and major fellowships like non-NET scholarships frequently experience months-long delays, affecting basic sustenance and productivity.
    2. Inadequate Fellowship Amounts: The ₹8,000 monthly scholarship, unchanged since 2012, remains insufficient even for minimal living costs.
    3. Forced Supplementary Work: Students must take up temporary teaching assignments, reducing time available for research.
    4. Failed Direct Transfer Models: Attempts to transfer fellowship payments directly from banks collapsed due to payment delays and administrative complexities.

    Why is India’s research ecosystem unable to retain talent?

    1. Limited Faculty Positions: Funded PhDs are scarce; many bright students cannot find positions due to narrow intake. 
    2. Opaque Recruitment Processes: Ad-hoc contractual appointments reduce academic stability and deter long-term research commitment.
    3. Weak University Ecosystem: Few Indian universities maintain predictability and transparency in administrative and financial processes.

    What non-STEM burdens weaken STEM research?

    1. Non-scientific Teaching Loads: PhD programmes require students to teach subjects like psychology, sociology, history, diverting time and focus from scientific inquiry.
    2. Administrative Distractions: Non-STEM tasks increase the administrative burden on researchers, affecting scientific productivity.
    3. Cultural undervaluation of STEM: Specific social sciences are privileged in university structures, leading to skewed resource allocation.

    Conclusion

    India’s STEM potential depends on addressing foundational issues, predictable funding, research relevance, ecosystem stability, transparent administration, and meaningful industry linkages. Without systemic reform, higher fellowships alone cannot solve deeper governance failures. Strengthening these roots will determine whether India can build a globally competitive research ecosystem capable of supporting national development.

    UPSC Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialised. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

    Linkage: This theme links directly to GS-3: Science & Technology, IPR, innovation ecosystem, highlighting gaps between patent filings and commercialization. It is relevant for analysing India’s weak research-to-market pipeline, low industry linkages, funding delays, and systemic failure.

  • How can India benefit from neurotechnology

    Introduction

    Neurotechnology integrates neuroscience, AI, engineering, and computing to decode and influence neural activity. At the core of this revolution lies the Brain-Computer Interface (BCI), a system that converts thoughts into actions using implanted or non-invasive devices. As global investment accelerates, India stands at a crucial juncture: it must leverage its scientific strengths while addressing regulatory and ethical gaps to become a competitive player in this emerging domain.

    Why in the news

    Neurotechnology has moved into a phase of rapid global advancement, with major breakthroughs such as in-human trials of Neuralink’s BCI receiving regulatory approval in 2024. Nations like the U.S., China, and Chile are accelerating R&D through large-scale missions. 

    Understanding Neurotechnology and BCIs

    1. Mechanical-neural integration: Neurotechnology uses devices that read, monitor, or influence brain activity, enabling control of cursors, robotic arms, wheelchairs, or prosthetics in real time.
    2. BCI systems: BCIs convert neural signals into digital commands, using implanted electrodes for precision or non-invasive systems such as EEG headsets.
    3. Therapeutic potential: Devices help diagnose brain disorders, stimulate brain regions for depression or Parkinson’s, or allow communication for patients with paralysis.
    4. Human-human interfaces: Research has even enabled brain-to-brain communication, transmitting simple information between individuals.

    India’s Need for Neurotechnology

    1. High neurological disease burden: India faces major disorders such as stroke, Parkinson’s disease, spinal cord injuries, and depression.
    2. Growing share of NCDs: Between 1990-2019, the share of non-communicable and injury-related neurological disorders rose steadily.
    3. Stroke as largest contributor: Stroke has become the top neurological contributor to India’s disease load.
    4. Rehabilitation benefits: BCIs offer possibilities for motor restoration, communication, and reducing long-term medication dependency.
    5. Mental health potential: With rising mental health challenges, neuromodulation and cognitive stimulation could offer new tools for treatment.

    India’s Current Standing

    1. Academic leadership: Institutes such as IIT Delhi, IISc, and AIIMS are active in BCI research, advancing sensor tech, signal processing, and neural implants.
    2. Neurorights and ethics research: Centres like IIT’s neurotechnology groups study data privacy, cognitive security, and the ethics of manipulating neural signals.
    3. Interdisciplinary progress: Neuroscience, AI, biomedical engineering, and biotech sectors are expanding, positioning India to scale domestic innovation.

    Global Progress and Lessons for India

    1. U.S. BRAIN Initiative: A major collaboration between federal agencies and private partners to accelerate innovative neurotechnologies.
    2. Neuralink trials: In 2024, Neuralink demonstrated that implanted BCIs restored motor functions in paralytic patients.
    3. China Brain Project (2016-2030): Focuses on cognition, brain-inspired AI, and neurological disorders.
    4. Chile & EU leadership: Pioneering frameworks for neuro-rights, ensuring cognitive liberty and mental privacy.
    5. Wide applications: Uses range from healthcare, gaming, rehabilitation, and security, making this not just a medical frontier but an economic one.

    Challenges for India

    1. Regulatory vacuum: Lack of clear national guidelines for invasive vs non-invasive BCIs, safety standards, and neural data protection.
    2. Ethical and privacy concerns: BCIs generate the most sensitive form of data-thought-level signals.
    3. Adoption and funding gaps: Without adequate funding and industry incentives, large-scale deployment will remain slow.
    4. Need for a national mission: A coordinated strategy is required to tap into India’s biotech capacity.

    Conclusion

    Neurotechnology represents a strategic frontier combining biotech, AI, and healthcare. For India, the potential spans medical rehabilitation, national innovation capacity, and future economic growth. However, its successful adoption requires a strong regulatory framework, ethical safeguards, and a dedicated national strategy that aligns technological advancement with patient safety and cognitive rights.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] What do you understand by nanotechnology and how is it helping in health sector? 

    Linkage: This PYQ falls under GS-3 Science & Technology, where UPSC tests new and frontier technologies shaping future healthcare. Nanotechnology is directly linked to neurotechnology and BCIs, forming the base for next-generation medical diagnostics, making it highly relevant for UPSC.

  • Technology Development Fund (TDF) Scheme

    Why in the news?

    DRDO has handed over seven indigenous defence technologies developed under the Technology Development Fund (TDF) scheme to the three Armed Services.

    Technologies Transferred

    1. High-Voltage Power Supply for Airborne Self-Protection Jammers
       Enhances protection of aircraft from radar guided threats
    2. Tide-Efficient Gangway for Naval Jetties
       Assists safe crew movement in high tidal variation zones
    3. Advanced VLF-HF Switching Matrix System
       Efficient communication routing in naval platforms
    4. VLF Loop Aerials for Underwater Platforms
       Underwater long-range communication support
    5. Indigenous Waterjet Propulsion System for Fast Interceptor Craft
       Marine propulsion technology aiding coastal security
    6. Process for Recovery of Lithium Precursors from Used Lithium-ion Batteries
       Supports strategic material recycling and energy security
    7. Long-Life Seawater Battery System
       Provides sustained power for underwater surveillance

    About the TDF Scheme

    • Implemented by DRDO
    • Objective:
      • Support MSMEs and startups in defence innovation
      • Promote import substitution of critical technologies
    • Funding support up to 90 percent of development cost
    • Aligned with Aatmanirbhar Bharat and defence indigenisation push
    Consider the following statements: (2023)

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at sub-sonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) 

    Why in the news?

    Meta is in advanced talks with Google to use its Tensor Processing Units for large scale AI workloads, indicating a major shift in the AI chip ecosystem. This led to a drop in Nvidia’s stock due to concerns over market share loss.

    What is a TPU

    • A specialized hardware chip designed to accelerate artificial intelligence and machine learning processing
     • Developed by Google in 2016
     • Optimized for tensor computations used in deep learning
     • Widely deployed in data centers and cloud platforms

    Why TPUs are Important

    • Deep learning models require high-speed matrix and tensor calculations
     • CPUs are optimized for general-purpose tasks
     • GPUs are effective for parallel graphics and AI workloads
     • TPUs surpass them in efficiency for specific deep learning operations

    How TPUs Work

    • Built to handle large scale tensor and matrix computations
     • Use massive parallelism to execute numerous operations simultaneously
     • Consume less energy while delivering high throughput
     • Include specialized circuits to avoid unnecessary general-purpose processing overhead

    What are GPU and TPU? 

    ​​GPU: general-purpose parallel compute processor (Used by Navidia)

    TPU: AI-specific chip optimised for deep learning tensor operations
    With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (2020)

    (1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units

    (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs (3) Disease diagnosis

    (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion

    (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5