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Exam Year: 2022

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    Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth’s average surface temperature due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from human activities.

    Effects of Global Warming on Global Climate

    Melting Glaciers & Polar Ice – Eg – Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets losing mass at record rates.

    Sea-Level Rise – IPCC projects 1.3-1.6 m SLR by 2100 under high-emission scenarios – Submergence of low-lying coasts, salinity intrusion and displacement.

    Extreme Weather Events – Eg – Increasing frequency of Category 4-5 cyclones in the Indian Ocean.

    Disruption of Monsoons – Erratic and unpredictable rainfall.

    Ocean Acidification – Elevated CO₂ lowers pH, affecting coral reefs and fisheries. Eg – Mass bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef.

    Biodiversity Decline – Species migration and extinction risks rise.

    Intensification of feedback loops – Eg- Permafrost thaw releases methane, warming oceans release less CO₂, and forest dieback reduces carbon sinks

    Expansion of arid zones – Higher temperatures increase evapotranspiration and reduce soil moisture. Eg – Prolonged droughts in Horn of Africa

    Disruption of Global Thermohaline Circulation – Eg- weakening of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

    Hotter, drier conditions raise wildfire risks – Eg – Australian bushfires (2019-20) and California wildfires

    Control Measures to Reduce GHGs (under Kyoto Protocol, 1997)

    The Kyoto Protocol was the first legally binding global framework mandating GHG reduction by industrialised nations.

    Binding Emission Reduction Targets – Annex-I countries committed to reducing emissions by 5% below 1990 levels during 2008-2012.

    Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – Allows developed countries to invest in emission-reduction projects in developing nations and earn carbon credits.

    Joint Implementation (JI) – Developed nations can meet their Kyoto targets via emission-reduction projects in other Annex-I countries.

    International Emissions Trading (IET) – countries with surplus emission units trade them with those exceeding their limits.

    Other Measures

    Enhancing Carbon Sinks through afforestation, reforestation and improved land management. Eg- Miyawaki method of Urban Forestry

    Low-Carbon Technologies to reduce fossil-fuel use. Eg- EVs

    Energy Efficiency – Efficiency standards, industrial retrofits, transport reforms and building codes reduce GHG intensity.

    Policy Support for Green Finance – Eg- tax breaks, green bonds, climate insurance etc

    Implementing these through enhanced national commitments, equitable climate finance and rapid decarbonization remains essential for achieving SDG 13 (Climate Action)

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    Cellulose, the main structural material in plant cell walls, is the Earth’s most abundant organic polymer. When plants die, microorganisms decompose cellulose into carbon dioxide, water, and humus, recycling nutrients back into ecosystems.

    Natural processes undergone by cellulose

    Chemical Degradation:

    Cellulose decomposition is carried out by microbes such as Trichoderma and Clostridium, which secrete cellulase enzymes.

    These enzymes sequentially break cellulose into smaller chains, then cellobiose,and finally glucose for microbial absorption.

    Metabolic Processing: After absorption, microbes metabolize glucose to release energy.

    Oxygen-rich conditions: aerobic microbes convert glucose into carbon dioxide and water.

    Oxygen-poor environments: wetlands, anaerobic microbes and methanogens ferment glucose, producing methane and carbon dioxide.

    Humification:

    Not all plant material fully decomposes; some forms stable humus through reactions with lignin and microbial proteins.

    Humus enriches soil fertility, improves water retention, and acts as an important long-term carbon sink.

    The natural processing of deposited cellulose represents the core operational machinery of the Global Carbon Cycle. Without this systematic microbial and physical breakdown, plant litter would accumulate indefinitely, locking away vital nutrients and choking planetary ecosystems.

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    Photochemical smog is a secondary air pollutant formed when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to produce oxidants like ozone and create a brownish haze in urban atmospheres.

    Effects of Photochemical Smog

    Human Health Impacts – Causes respiratory irritation, asthma, reduced lung function and cardiovascular stress.

    In 2021, air pollution caused 2.1 million deaths in India (State of Global Air Report 2024)

    Crop Damage – Ozone leads to leaf chlorosis, reduced photosynthesis and lower yields. Eg- Wheat and soybean show high ozone sensitivity.

    Material Degradation – PAN and ozone corrode rubber, plastics, textiles and paints.

    Reduced Visibility – affect transport and aviation safety. Eg- Delhi in winter

    Mitigation of Photochemical Smog

    Vehicular Emission Control –

    Use catalytic converters to reduce Nitrogen and carbon monoxide emissions,

    Expand EV network

    Regulatory measures – Odd-even and congestion pricing (London Model)

    Industrial Pollution Reduction – Installation of scrubbers, VOC capture systems.

    Waste to energy – Eg- biofuels from agriculture waste in Punjab, Haryana

    High-resolution air quality monitoring network at the construction site linked to automatic sprayers, mist cannons, or sprinklers to reduce dust

    Expand Urban Green Infrastructure – Eg- Singapore’s green urban planning

    Air Quality Forecasting & Alerts – Eg- GRAP-like measures during smog episodes.

    1999 Gothenburg Protocol

    Protocol to the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP)

    Sets national emission ceilings for SO₂, NOx, VOCs and ammonia (NH₃).

    Binding country-specific reduction targets for harmful emissions.

    Updated in 2012 to include fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon.

    Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism for transparency and accountability

    Adopting WHO’s 4 Pillar Strategy is essential to achieve Clean India

    Expanding the knowledge base

    Monitoring and reporting

    Global leadership and coordination

    Institutional capacity strengthening

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    Coastal Erosion refers to breaking down and carrying away of materials by sea. As per National Centre for Coastal Research, about 33.6% of Indian coast is eroding.

    Causes

    Natural Causes

    Cyclones and Storm Surges erode dunes and beaches. Eg- Bay of Bengal cyclone belts.

    Climate-induced Sea-Level Rise submerges low-lying coasts. Eg- Sundarbans delta witnessing shoreline retreat.

    Strong tidal flow and seasonal currents disturb sediment balance. Eg- West coast monsoonal erosion.

    Loss of Natural Buffers – depletion of coral reefs, dunes or seagrass beds reduces wave dissipation. Eg- Reef loss around Lakshadweep.

    Anthropogenic Causes

    Construction of Ports, Breakwaters and Jetties interrupt sediment transport, causing erosion downdrift. Eg- Ennore and Puducherry coastlines.

    River Damming – Dams reduce sediment supply reaching deltas and beaches. Eg- Shrinkage of Godavari and Narmada deltas.

    Sand Mining removes beach sediment. Eg- Severe erosion hotspots in Kerala.

    Coastal Land Reclamation increases erosion by altering the shoreline. Eg- Reclaimed coasts around Mumbai.

    Destruction of Mangroves eliminates natural wave barriers.

    Pollution and Ecosystem Degradation reduce shoreline stability. Eg- Coral mortality in Gulf of Mannar.

    Effect

    Effects on Environment

    Loss of Coastal Habitats – Eg- Mangrove loss in the Sundarbans.

    Saltwater Intrusion – degrade freshwater ecosystems. Eg- Salinisation of Andhra Pradesh coastal farmlands.

    Loss of natural buffers heightens storm-surge and monsoon flooding risk. Eg- Erosion-induced flooding in Kerala’s low-lying coast.

    Effects on Economy

    Damage to Infrastructure – Roads, bridges and coastal installations become unstable due to subsidence. Eg – Road collapse incidents in Uttar Kannada (Karnataka).

    Loss of Productive Land – Eg- Farmland abandonment in Tamil Nadu erosion belts.

    Threat to critical infrastructure – Eg- offshore oil plants and windmills

    Effects on Society

    Displacement of Coastal Communities due to Shrinking shorelines

    Loss of Livelihoods – Fishing communities lose landing points and fish stocks.

    Saline intrusion reduces drinking water availability and increases contamination risks.

    Loss of Cultural Heritage – Eg- Threats to traditional coastal temples in Tamil Nadu.

    Available coastal Management Techniques

    Hard Engineering Measures

    Seawalls to block wave attack.

    Groynes – Trap sand and widen beaches. Eg- Puducherry groyne field.

    Breakwaters – Offshore barriers that reduce wave energy. Eg- Chennai port.

    Revetments – Sloped rock armour to absorb wave impact.

    Soft Engineering Measures

    Ecological Restoration of Mined Coasts– Eg – Puducherry’s beach nourishment project.

    Dune Stabilisation – Planting grasses and fencing dunes.

    Mangrove Restoration – Eg- MISHTI-based efforts in Sundarbans.

    Coral and Seagrass Restoration – Eg- Andaman reef rehabilitation.

    Beach cleanliness drives – Eg- Blue Flag Certification

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

    Sediment Budgeting in Coastal Planning to ensure river-to-coast sediment flow is maintained.

    Ecosystem-Based Coastal Planning – Combines geomorphology, ecology and socio-economic factors. Eg- ICZM projects in Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal.

    Regulatory Tools (CRZ Norms) – no-development zones and hazard mapping reduce vulnerability.

    Coastal Management Information System (CMIS) to collect nearshore coastal data for planning, designing, and maintaining coastal protection structures

    Early Warning Systems – INCOIS alerts for timely action.

    Coastal erosion in India requires integrated, science-based and community-driven management

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    IMD defines cloudburst as an extreme weather event involving very high-intensity rainfall (often >100 mm/hour) over a small geographical area (20-30 sq. km.) within a short duration.

    Mechanism of Cloudburst

    Moist air masses are forced to rise abruptly when they encounter steep mountain slopes.

    Rapid ascent causes condensation and release of latent heat, intensifying convection.

    Strong Convective Clouds (Cumulonimbus) up to 12-15 km.

    Moisture Supply from Monsoon Systems enhances instability.

    When updrafts weaken, large volumes of accumulated rainwater are released at once, causing cloudburst-like rainfall.

    Occurrence of cloudburst in the Indian Subcontinent

    Himalayan and Western Ghat Topography – Steep slopes promote rapid vertical uplift.

    Monsoon Dynamics – High atmospheric moisture during June-September.

    Climate Change – Rising temperatures increase atmospheric moisture-holding capacity. Eg- every 1°C rise lets air hold ~7% more moisture.

    Land-Use Changes – Deforestation, slope cutting, and urbanisation increase runoff and disaster impact.

    2 recent examples

    Cloudburst in Uttarakhand in 2025 – Chamoli, Rudraprayag, Tehri, and Bageshwar districts affected

    Himachal Pradesh Cloudbursts in 2025 – affectedKullu, Mandi, Shimla districts. Triggered flash floods and massive landslides. Losses at about Rs 4,300 crore and nearly 380 deaths

    Mitigation measures

    Structural

    Engineering solutions – Retaining walls, slope drainage, rock bolting, geo-textiles,

    Nature based solutions – Afforestation in himalaya

    Non-Structural

    Expansion of multi-hazard insurance

    Disaster resilient urban planning (Mishra committee on Joshimath crisis)

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

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    The PDS (started in 1960s) is a government-run food security mechanism that provides subsidised foodgrains to eligible households through a network of Fair Price Shops.

    Major challenges of the PDS

    Weak supply chain management – Storage Losses due to poor warehousing and handling. Eg- 40% of the food wasted (1.5 lakh crore or 1% of the GDP)

    Open ended procurement leads to overflowing of FCI godowns

    Diversion – Eg- 28% of allocated foodgrains fail to reach beneficiaries as per HCES 2022-23.

    Inclusion and exclusion errors due to faulty beneficiary identification.

    Corruption and ghost beneficiaries – Over 47 million bogus ration cards cancelled between 2013-2021

    Corruption at Fair Price Shops (FPS) – Issues of under-weighing, overcharging etc

    Fiscal Burden – Food subsidy budget @ 2.1 lakh cr in 2025-26

    PDS is cereal-centric, ignoring dietary diversity. Leads to triple burden of malnutrition – undernutrition, obesity, micronutrient deficiency.

    Technology issues – Internet failure, biometric mismatch and device malfunction under e-PoS / Aadhaar authentication.

    Way Forward

    Shanta Kumar Committee Recommendations on Revamping of PDS

    Direct Procurement by States

    Private Sector Involvement in procurement, storage, and distribution

    Diversify the food basket – Include millets, pulses, edible oil and iodised salt for nutritional security.

    Strengthen grievance redressal – Set up toll-free helplines, social audits and citizen charters at FPS level.

    Community monitoring – Involve self-help groups, local bodies and civil society in supervision.

    Periodic updating and verification of ration cards.

    Universal PDS similar to Tamil Nadu’s model.

    Optimise buffer stock norms to reduce food grain wastage.

    The PDS remains a vital tool for India’s food security and realise SDG 1,2,3,and 12

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    Agricultural marketing refers to the entire process involved in moving farm produce from the farmer to the final consumer. In India, this system faces bottlenecks at both upstream (farm-level) and downstream (market-to-consumer) stages.

    Fragmented Landholdings – 86% small and marginal farmers with low production volumes make aggregation difficult.

    Poor First-Mile Connectivity – About 25% rural habitations lack pucca road connectivity – increases spoilage of perishables.

    Lack of On-Farm Storage leads to distress sales. Eg- 166 MMT storage capacity gap (FAO)

    Inadequate Primary Processing – Minimal grading, sorting, cleaning, and drying at the farm level

    High Post-Harvest Losses – Losses of 6-18% in fruits & vegetables due to poor handling.

    Weak Farmer Institutions – FPO/cooperatives have limited capacity for aggregation and marketing

    Limited Access to Information – Farmers lack real-time data on prices, demand and arrivals.

    High Input & Transport Costs makes farm-to-mandi movement expensive. Eg- logistics cost is 14% of GDP

    Demand and supply gap due to Cobweb Phenomenon (Economic Survey) – Crop production depends on prices in previous periods rather than present demand

    63% of agricultural households sold their crops to local markets and only 7.2% sold to APMCs.

    APMC operating in monopolised silos limit free inter-state movement and competition. Eg- Licensing barriers and cartelisation

    Dominance of Intermediaries leads to low price realisation. Eg- Farmers get only 25-30% of final price in perishables.

    Inadequate Market Infrastructure – Mandis lack grading, sorting, storage, and drying yards. Only 10% of mandis meet required norms (Dalwai Committee).

    Low Digital Integration – Only about 1500 mandis integrated with e-NAM (2024).

    Quality & SPS Compliance Gaps – Inadequate testing infrastructure impacts domestic sales and exports. Eg- EU rejecting Mango consignment

    Organised retail remains concentrated in metro and Tier-1 cities, with limited rural coverage

    Low investment – Private investment <1% Agri-GDP.

    Way Forward

    Strengthening FPOs to enhance collective bargaining and direct market access for farmers. Eg- Sahyadri FPO in Maharashtra – increased incomes by 30%

    Cold-Chain-as-a-Service (CCaaS) – IoT-based cold storage + logistics integration to reduce post-harvest losses

    MSP 2.0 based on 3 D’s – Decentralisation, Diversification and Digital Procurement.

    Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers near farm gates.

    Legal Reforms – Eg- adoption Model contract farming Act by states

    Strengthening supply chain management is key to ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

    Agriculture Inputs

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    Integrated farming system refers to the integration of multiple components of agriculture in a single farm unit to enhance productivity, sustainability and resilience while optimising resource use.

    Integrated Farming System (IFS)

    Multi-enterprise model: crop farming + dairy + poultry + fisheries + horticulture + composting + agroforestry.

    Agro Ecological approach – Biodiversity Conservation

    Waste-to-wealth through nutrient and energy recycling.

    Closed nutrient loop – Minimises external inputs

    System-based planning: farm as an ecosystem

    Benefits of IFS for small and marginal farmers

    Economic Benefits

    Lower input cost: Use of on-farm manure, biogas slurry and feed reduces market dependency.

    Income Security – Multiple income sources reduce climate and market vulnerability. Eg- crop loss can be offset by milk/poultry/fish income.

    Doubling Farmers income – Eg- paddy cultivation + fish farming + poultry in Tamil Nadu saw income rise by over 100%. (ICAR study)

    Better credit worthiness: Regular income improves repayment capacity and access to formal finance.

    Livelihood & Social Security

    Year-round employment: Continuous work across livestock, cropping, fisheries, and horticulture.

    Family labour utilisation: Eg- women and elderly in backyard poultry, dairy and nurseries

    Nutrition security: Access to milk, eggs, vegetables, fruits and fish

    Stable livelihood prevents rural-urban distress migration.

    Women empowerment: Dairy, poultry and SHGs bring direct income to rural women.

    Environmental Benefits

    Improves soil health and carbon content: Organic manure + crop rotation + green manure.

    Water efficiency: Eg- Pond-field-livestock integration allows reuse of water and nutrients.

    Enhanced Biodiversity by offering homes for a variety of plant and animal species. Eg- Agroforestry

    Reduces pollution: Minimizes chemical runoff and stubble burning through recycling.

    Challenges in IFS

    Small and Marginal Land Holdings (86%) restricts integration of enterprises like ponds or livestock.

    High Initial Investment requirement in biogas units, sheds and fish ponds require capital.

    Limited Knowledge & Skills at village level – IFS demands multi-disciplinary expertise.

    Lack of Market Linkages and assured procurement channels for surplus milk, fish, vegetables

    Policy Gaps – Schemes operate in silos rather than landscape-based integrated planning.

    Way Forward

    Promote climate and region-wise IFS models (dryland, coastal, hill).

    Financial Support – low-interest loans + integrated crop-livestock insurance.

    Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers

    Extension Support through Krishi Sakhis, FPOs and Agri-Startups for training and backward-forward linkages.

    Raising R&D Investment to 1% of GDP

    Budget 2025-26 emphasised Agriculture as the ‘first engine’ for India’s development journey. IFS can be the backbone of this journey.

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    India’s food processing sector is projected to grow from $307 billion (2023) to $700 billion by 2030, driven by rising demand, technological change, and strong policy support.

    Scope of the Food Processing Industry in India

    Large agricultural base

    India is the world’s largest producer of milk, spices, pulses, millets,

    Wide product spectrum – Includes dairy, fruits & vegetables, meat, fisheries, beverages, ready-to-eat (RTE), and organic foods.

    Lifestyle Shift – 65% of Indians under 35, rising incomes, urbanization & busy lifestyles have boosted demand for ready-to-eat & processed foods.

    Rapid growth in Organised retail and “shopping mall culture”– better supply chain management. Eg- D-mart

    Export potential – India exports processed foods to 200+ countries

    Nearly 70% of food processing units operate in the unorganised MSME sector – generate rural employment and entrepreneurship.

    Significance of the Food Processing Industry

    Demand for horticulture, poultry, fisheries, spices, and nutri-cereals supports diversification away from rice-wheat systems.

    Strengthens food security – Processing improves food availability, safety, nutrient retention and supports a resilient supply chain.

    Reduces post-harvest losses (15-20% of perishable losses annually) – processing improves shelf life and reduces wastage.

    Doubling farmer’s income – Value addition ensures better price realisation.

    Investment – Eg- Recent,World Food India attractedinvestment by global, domestic giants like Coca-Cola

    Boosts employment generation – Food processing creates one of the highest employment multipliers, across harvesting, sorting, packaging, and logistics.

    Drives industrialisation of rural economy – Mega Food Parks, agro-processing clusters, and cold chains stimulate local industry and logistics networks.

    Foreign exchange earnings through exports improve India’s trade balance and economic growth.

    As India moves forward under the Make in India vision, the food processing industry will continue to be a key driver of economic growth, ensuring food security, quality, and global competitiveness.

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    ADB describes PPP as “a cooperative venture between the public and private sectors, built on the expertise of each partner, that best meets clearly defined public needs through the appropriate allocation of resources, risks, and rewards.”

    Importance of PPP in Infrastructure Projects

    Investment – NIP requires Rs 111 lakh crore. PPP mobilises private capital, reducing fiscal pressure on the government.

    Efficiency – Private players bring managerial expertise, technological upgrades, and project management capabilities

    Risk Sharing between government and private players improves project viability.

    Cost Reduction – performance-based contracts, ensures asset quality, lower maintenance costs, and better service delivery.

    Faster Project Execution by reducing bureaucratic procedures. Eg- Delhi Metro

    Revenue Generation for government – Eg- Toll, commercial leasing, advertisements

    Role of PPP Model in Redevelopment of Railway Stations in India

    Station Redevelopment as multimodal commercial hubs. Eg- Gandhinagar Capital Station

    Monetisation of railway land parcels through commercial development. Eg- Habibganj (Rani Kamlapati) Station, Bhopal

    Improved Passenger Amenities with better maintenance, cleanliness and world class infrastructure. Eg- Ayodhya Railway Station

    Revenue generation for Railways via lease rights and development rights.

    Faster Implementation through EPC-PPP Mix, ensuring speed + financial viability.

    Catalyst for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)- Redeveloped stations become urban nodes supporting business, tourism, and last-mile connectivity.

    Challenges in PPP for Railway Station Redevelopment

    Land acquisition delays due to overlapping jurisdictions, unclear titles, and restrictions on commercial use.

    Uncertain Demand & Revenue Realisation

    High Capital Requirement & Long Gestation period deter private players.

    Regulatory Issues- poor coordination between railway authorities, urban local bodies, and concessionaires.

    Rigid Contract Structures and concession agreements – lead to Litigation

    Way Forward

    Transparent Model Concession Agreements with clear risk allocation and dispute mechanisms.

    Stronger Institutional Capacity in Indian Railways for PPP management.

    Hybrid PPP Models – EPC for core assets + PPP for commercial components

    Single-window clearances for faster approvals.

    Implementation of VIjay Kelkar Committee recommendations on PPP can transform railways into modern, inclusive, multimodal transport hubs

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