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Exam Year: 2022

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    The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere, extending from the Earth’s surface to approximately 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator.

    Troposphere- (0-18 km) Weather-active layer. Holds 75% of atmospheric mass.

    Stratosphere- (18-50 km) Home to the ozone layer. Temperature increases with height.

    Mesosphere- (50-85 km) Coldest layer. Meteors burn up here.

    Thermosphere- (85-600 km) Ionosphere location. Facilitates satellite orbits.

    Exosphere- (600 km+) Fades into outer space.

    Significance of Troposphere

    Hydrological Cycle Engine- Holds 99% of atmospheric water vapor, driving all rain and snow.

    Aerosol Nucleation- Hosts dust and pollutants that act as “seeds” for raindrops.

    Environmental Lapse Rate- Temperature drops 6.5°C per km, facilitating cloud-forming condensation.

    Greenhouse Regulation- Contains most CO2 and Methane, maintaining Earth’s habitable temperature.

    Zone of atmospheric convection – Vertical mixing redistributes heat and moisture. Eg- Cumulonimbus cloud development.

    Mass Concentration- Contains 75% of the atmosphere’s mass, providing the pressure needed for winds.

    Boundary Layer Dynamics- The lowest part (PBL) interacts with the surface, determining local microclimates.

    Cyclogenesis Theatre- All tropical and extra-tropical cyclones originate and intensify within this layer.

    Tropopause Lid- Acts as a thermal ceiling, trapping weather within the troposphere.

    Jet streams at upper troposphere steer weather systems. Eg- Subtropical jet influencing Indian winter weather.

    Major Challenges

    Tropospheric Warming- Breach of the 1.5°C threshold has permanently altered weather baselines.

    Increased frequency and intensity of La Niña-El Niño has destabilized global rainfall predictability.

    Polar Vortex Instability- Stratospheric warming is pushing Arctic air into mid-latitudes. Eg- cold waves in Europe.

    Height Expansion- As the troposphere warms, it is physically expanding upward.

    Ground-Level Ozone- Increasing heat is turning tropospheric pollutants into toxic smog.

    Understanding and protecting tropospheric processes is therefore critical for weather prediction, disaster management, and sustainable human survival.

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    The reorganisation of states and territories in India has been a dynamic process shaped by administrative efficiency, linguistic identity, cultural aspirations, and political considerations.

    Reorganisation Under British Rule (Mid-19th Century onwards)

    Provinces were created for administrative convenience, not cultural or linguistic coherence. Eg- Bengal Presidency included Bengal, Bihar, Orissa – too large to govern efficiently.

    Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon along communal lines – reversed in 1911 due to Swadeshi agitation.

    Separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency (1936) and creation of Orissa Province (1936).

    Post-Independence Reorganisation

    Integration of Princely States (1947-50)

    565 princely states merged into the Indian Union through instruments of accession and mergers.

    Rajasthan formed from 19 princely states, Madhya Bharat from Central Indian states.

    Linguistic Reorganisation

    Dhar Commission (1948) & JVP Committee (1949) opposed linguistic reorganisation.

    States Reorganisation Commission (SRC, 1956) under Fazl Ali recommended reorganisation on linguistic basis.

    States Reorganisation Act (1956) created 14 states and 6 union territories.

    Subsequent Reorganisations

    Bombay split into Maharashtra and Gujarat (1960) after Samyukta Maharashtra Movement

    Punjab trifurcated into Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh (1966) on linguistic basis

    Northeastern states carved out – Nagaland (1963), Meghalaya (1972), Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura.

    Goa became a state in 1987 after liberation from Portuguese rule (1961).

    Recent Reorganisations

    Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand created in 2000 from Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh respectively – driven by demands for better governance and tribal identity.

    Telangana was carved out of Andhra Pradesh in 2014 after prolonged agitation.

    Union Territory Changes

    Reorganisation of Jammu & Kashmir into two UTs (2019) under Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act.

    Ladakh was created as a separate UT (2019).

    However, continuous demands for new states (Vidarbha, Gorkhaland, Bodoland) indicate the process remains ongoing.

    The reorganisation of states reflects India’s capacity for democratic accommodation of diverse aspirations within a federal framework.

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    Tier 2 cities are urban centers with a population between 50,000 and 100,000. Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities house over 51% of MSMEs and are witnessing a 20-25% annual growth in organized retail.

    Reasons for Growth of Tier 2 Cities

    Infrastructure Push- Projects like Bharatmala and PM Gati Shakti. Eg- Lucknow-Kanpur Expressway

    Increasing industrialization and urbanization – 37% population living in cities

    Regional Air Connectivity under UDAN Scheme increasing accessibility.

    IT Decentralization- Companies moving to “Spoke-and-Hub” models in cities like Kochi.

    Reverse Migration among skilled professionals due to work from home culture and increasing cost of living in Tier-1 cities

    Lower Cost of Operations for startups.

    Educational Hubs-expansion of IITs, IIMs, and private universities in cities like Jodhpur and Bhubaneswar.

    Smart Cities Mission- Digital and civic upgrades in 100 cities improving “Ease of Living.”

    Linkages between growth of tier-2 cities and the new consumption-oriented middle class

    Economic Decentralisation – Movement of industries and services beyond metros has generated stable salaried employment.

    Rising Disposable Incomes due to rising incomes and lower cost of living allows higher discretionary spending.

    Real Estate Boom – Growth of housing, malls, multiplexes, and gated communities reshape lifestyles.

    Expansion of organised retail, food chains, and lifestyle services cater to aspirational consumers. Eg- Zudio, McDonald in tier-2 cities

    E-commerce Penetration- Deep logistics networks by Amazon and Flipkart

    Digital Penetration – Internet, smartphones, and OTT platforms diffuse global consumer culture. Eg- Online shopping and influencer-driven consumption.

    Cultural Shift from Necessity to Lifestyle Consumption – Travel, dining out, fitness centres, and entertainment becoming routine expenses. Eg- fitness chains like Cult.fit

    Credit Expansion – Easy access to loans and EMIs fuels consumption. Eg- Buy Now, Pay Later option.

    Changing Social Values – Individualism and aspiration replace frugality and traditional restraint.

    Ensuring that consumption-led growth is inclusive and sustainable is needed to make Tier-2 cities as engines of equitable urban development.

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    Under British rule, India experienced an unprecedented frequency of famines (31 major famines) leading to over 60 million deaths.

    Reasons for sudden spurt in famines in colonial India

    Commercialisation of agriculture – Shift from food crops to cash crops reduced local food availability. Eg- Expansion of indigo, cotton, and opium cultivation under Company pressure.

    Rigid land revenue systems with fixed and high revenue demands forced peasants to sell grain during scarcity.

    Collapse of handicrafts increased dependence on agriculture and reduced household resilience during crop failure.

    Disruption of traditional famine-coping mechanisms like community grain banks due to British policies.

    Free trade ideology (laissez-faire attitude) prioritised exports over local needs. Eg- Continued grain exports during famines like the Great Famine of 1876-78.

    Neglect of agricultural investment heightened vulnerability to monsoon failure. Eg- Limited irrigation outside canal colonies.

    Diversion of foodgrains for British soldiers during world war II led to over 3 million deaths during Bengal famine of 1943

    Role of Viceroys – Lord Lytton exported 320,000 tons of wheat to England during the Great Famine of 1876-1878

    Thus, spurt in famines was an “administrative and man-made” phenomenon. It underscores the critical role of the state in ensuring food security at present.

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    Thomas Friedman defines globalization as the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies, making it farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper. It has accelerated the diffusion of technology thereby enabling efficient use, substitution, and management of scarce resources.

    Relationship between globalisation and new technology

    New technologies reduce the constraints of distance, time, and cost.

    Efficient Resource Utilisation– Eg- Precision agriculture using satellite data and sensors to reduce water and fertiliser use.

    Shift from Resource-Intensive to Knowledge-Intensive Growth– Eg- India’s IT-ITeS sector generating exports with minimal material input compared to manufacturing.

    Global Diffusion of cleaner and resource-efficient technologies. Eg- Solar and wind technologies.

    Integration into Global Value Chains (GVCs) – Technology enables countries to specialise in specific stages of production. Eg- India as the pharmacy of the world.

    Resource constraints stimulate technological innovation for low-cost solutions for energy, healthcare, and mobility. Eg- telemedicine under eSanjeevani

    The Circular Economy- Globalization facilitates the trade of “waste-as-resource” across borders.

    Exposure to global markets compels efficiency and innovation. Eg- Indian manufacturing adopting automation and Industry 4.0 to remain competitive.

    Technology for Resource Governance– GIS, remote sensing, and digital dashboards used for water management and climate action in India.

    Collaborative R&D- globalization pools global intellect. Eg- ITER project for nuclear fusion involving the EU, US, India, and China.

    Negative Impacts

    Unsustainable Extraction of mineral resources- Eg- Massive Lithium mining in South America to fuel the global EV boom.

    E-Waste Accumulation- Eg- Humanity produces 62 million tonnes of electronic waste every year.

    Technological Imperialism- Eg- Disputes over “Intellectual Property Rights” (IPR) for high-efficiency carbon-capture tech.

    Carbon Footprint of Logistics- Eg- global shipping and aviation account for ~10% of CO2 emissions.

    Digital Divide- Access to tech itself becomes a “scarce resource.” Eg- Only 40% of the Global South having access to 5G.

    Global competition for resources leading to conflicts

    China’s weaponization of rare earth supply chains.

    US attempt to take over Greenland

    Obsolescence by Design- Tech firms globally produce short-lived products to drive sales, wasting minerals. Eg- Smartphones designed with non-replaceable batteries.

    Labor Exploitation for Resources- Eg- Child labor in Cobalt mines in the DRC.

    Impact on India

    For India, the path forward lies in “Frugal Innovation” to ensure that the digital revolution does not come at the cost of the environment.

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    Natural rubber is a tropical plantation crop that requires high temperature (25°-35°C), heavy rainfall (>200 cm), and well-drained lateritic soils. Its production is highly concentrated in the humid equatorial and tropical monsoon regions.

    Distribution of Rubber Producing Countries

    Approximately 85-90% of the world’s natural rubber is produced in Asia, primarily by smallholders (plantations under 4 hectares).

    Southeast Asia

    Thailand- The world’s leading producer with 32-36% of global supply.

    Indonesia- The second-largest producer (~22% share)

    Other countries – Vietnam and Malaysia

    West Africa

    Ivory Coast- 4th largest global producer (over 1.3 million tonnes)

    Others- Nigeria, Ghana, and Liberia etc

    India- production is centered in Kerala and the North-East.

    Other Producers

    China – Yunnan and Hainan Island.

    Latin America – Brazil (original home of Hevea brasiliensis).

    Major Environmental Issues

    Deforestation- Since 2000, over 4 million hectares of tropical forest in Southeast Asia have been cleared for rubber.

    Forest-to-plantation land-use change increase carbon emissions

    Loss of Biodiversity due to monoculture. Eg- Decline of wildlife habitats in Southeast Asia.

    Water Stress- Rubber trees have high evapotranspiration rates, leading to depletion of local aquifers.

    Soil Degradation – Continuous monocropping reduces soil fertility and increases erosion on slopes. Eg- Rubber plantations in hilly tracts of Kerala.

    Effluent Pollution- discharge from small-scale processing units leads to high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and ammonia levels in nearby rivers.

    Habitat Fragmentation leading to human-wildlife Conflict. Eg- Elephant habitat loss in Kerala.

    Climate Change Vulnerability – Rising global temperatures (the “28°C threshold”) and erratic rainfall are making traditional regions less viable.

    Disease Proliferation – Monocultures are highly susceptible to pathogens like Circular Leaf Spot and White Root Rot

    Adoption of sustainable rubber agroforestry, intercropping, and landscape-level land-use planning is essential to reconcile economic benefits with ecological stability. Programs like the Global Platform for Sustainable Natural Rubber (GPSNR) are pushing for “Deforestation-Free” supply chains.

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    Secularism in the Indian context implies a “principled distance”, ensuring freedom of conscience while upholding constitutional morality, equality, and public order.

    Key Elements of Indian Secularism

    Tolerance

    Historical coexistence of faiths – Eg- Coexistence of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism over centuries.

    Constitutional protection – Freedom to profess, practice, and propagate religion under Articles 25 reflects tolerance towards different religious practices

    Sarva Dharma Sambhava remains the philosophical bedrock of Indian secularism, ensuring no single religion is prioritized.

    Article 51A (f)- Mandates a Fundamental Duty to “value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.”

    India’s history of sheltering persecuted communities (Parsis, Jews, Tibetans) highlights civilizational tolerance.

    Assimilation

    Cultural assimilation through syncretism – Eg- Bhakti-Sufi traditions blending devotional practices.

    Rejection of forced assimilation – Eg- protection to cultural practices of tribals under 6th schedule

    Linguistic Assimilation- Eighth Schedule reflects an assimilation of Sanskrit, and regional dialects.

    Architecture and Art- The Indo-Islamic style (Taj Mahal, Red Fort) is a physical manifestation of the assimilation of two distinct cultural worlds.

    Only practices violating equality and dignity are reformed. Eg- Abolition of untouchability under Article 17.

    Pluralism as the core principle

    Recognition of diversity as intrinsic – Eg- Legal recognition of multiple personal laws.

    Indian secularism emphasizes principled distance (Rajeev Bhargava) rather than equidistance. Eg- State support for pilgrimages.

    Article 29 & 30- Provides the “Right of Minorities” to establish and administer educational institutions, protecting their distinct language, script, or culture.

    Religious Denominations (Article 26)- Grants every religious group the right to manage their own affairs in matters of religion.

    National holidays on festivals of all religions. Eg- diwali, eid etc

    Other Aspects of Indian Secularism

    Reformatory Justice- state can intervene in religion to ban harmful practices like Sati, or Triple Talaq.

    State Funding to religious schools as long as they meet secular educational standards.

    Substantive Equality- It focuses on equality between religious groups as much as equality within them.

    Practiced as principled neutrality with respect for pluralism, Indian secularism protects both cultural practices and constitutional values.

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    India’s 110 million tribal population (8.6%) comprise over 705 distinct ethnic groups. However, they are legally and politically unified under the category of “Scheduled Tribes” (STs).

    Diversities Among Tribal Communities in India

    Ethnic and Racial – Negrito (Andamanese) and Proto-Australoid (Central Indian tribes) to Mongoloid (Northeast tribes).

    Modes of Subsistence- Hunter-Gatherers (Sentinels), Pastoralists (Toda), Shifting Cultivators (Jhumias of Mizoram), Settled Agriculturists (Meenas of).

    Geographical Dispersion- arid deserts of Rajasthan (Bhils), high Himalayas (Gaddis), tropical rainforests of the Andamans.

    Social Organization- Matrilineal societies of Meghalaya (Khasis, Garos), Patrilineal systems of Central India.

    Religious Beliefs- Sarnaism (nature worship), Christianity (Northeast), Buddhism (Ladakh), or Hinduism (Central India).

    Demographic Scale- Gonds and Bhils number in millions, PVTGs like the Great Andamanese fewer than 50 members.

    Educational Attainment- nearly 90% in Mizoram to less than 30% among PVTGs in Chhattisgarh.

    Specific contexts where tribes can be considered as a single category

    Political Representation and Voice – limited representation in “cabinet” as well as in administration. Eg- less than 5% SC/ST at secretary level

    Constitutional and Legal Safeguards – Unified recognition as Scheduled Tribes for protective discrimination. Eg- Fifth and Sixth Schedule, reservations in education, employment, and legislatures.

    Administrative Planning and Resource Allocation – Eg- Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP)

    Historical Experience of Marginalisation – Shared legacy of colonial forest policies, land alienation, and erosion of autonomy.

    Structural Economic Deprivation – Common patterns of poverty, livelihood insecurity, and dependence on primary resources.

    Human Development Deficits – Similar disadvantages in nutrition, health, and education indicators at the aggregate level.

    Vulnerability to Displacement and Development Projects – Disproportionate impact of mining, dams, and conservation projects on tribal regions.

    Social Exclusion and Discrimination – Limited access to education, healthcare, markets, and political institutions across regions.

    Ecological and Livelihood Linkages – Shared dependence on forests, land, and commons for survival. Eg- shifting cultivation

    Implementing SC judgment on sub-categorization (Davinder Singh case) can help avoid over-homogenisation and one-size-fits for all approach

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    The Gupta period (320-550 CE) is referred to as the Golden Age of India. Similarly, in the words of James Fergusson, “the Chola artists (9th-13th century CE) conceived like giants and finished like jewellers.”

    Main Contributions of the Gupta Period

    Religion and Philosophy

    Compilation and codification of Puranas and epics strengthened Brahmanical traditions. Eg- Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana.

    Vaishnavism and Shaivism received royal patronage, while Buddhism and Jainism continued to flourish.

    Literature

    Classical Sanskrit literature reached its zenith. Eg- Kalidasa’s Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha.

    Secular works like Panini’s grammar (Ashtadhyayi) and Vishnu Sharma’s Panchatantra gained prominence.

    Science and Medicine

    Significant advances in Ayurveda. Eg- Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were compiled and systematised.

    Progress in astronomy. Eg- Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya explaining earth’s rotation.

    Mathematics

    The concept of zero and decimal systems was developed. Eg- Works of Aryabhata and Varahamihira.

    Architecture

    Cave architecture reached artistic maturity. Eg- Ajanta, Bagh, and Udayagiri caves.

    Development of Nagaram style of temple architecture. Eg- Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh.

    Early use of brick temples.

    Sculpture

    Emergence of Sarnath School of Sculpture, noted for cream-coloured sandstone and spiritual expression. Eg- Sarnath Buddha image.

    Painting – Ajanta paintings depicting Jataka tales using fresco-tempera technique.

    Pillars and Inscriptions

    Pillar inscriptions reflected political ideals and administrative practices. Eg- Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta.

    Continued development of Buddhist stupas. Eg- Chaukhandi Stupa, Sarnath.

    Contributions of the Chola Period

    Temple Architecture

    Zenith of Dravidian temple architecture with monumental vimanas. Eg- Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

    Temples served as religious, economic, and cultural centres.

    Sculpture – Excellence in bronze casting using lost-wax technique. Eg- Nataraja bronze of Shiva, symbolising cosmic rhythm.

    Religion and Bhakti Tradition

    Consolidation of Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Eg- Patronage to Nayanars and Alvars.

    Bhakti became an instrument of social integration. Eg- Saints like Appar, Sundarar.

    Administration and Local Self-Government

    Highly developed village self-government. Eg- Kudavolai system recorded in Uttaramerur inscriptions.

    Social and Cultural Life

    Society organised around occupational and regional identities. Eg- Kurinji (hunting communities) associated with Murugan worship.

    Maritime Trade and Cultural Expansion

    Strong naval power and overseas trade. Eg- Cultural influence in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

    Together, they enriched India’s heritage with unity, diversity, and continuity, whose influence continues to shape Indian culture even today.

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    The Deccan Trap is one of the largest volcanic basalt provinces in the world, formed by massive lava flows during the late Cretaceous period. It covers nearly 5 lakh sq km across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Telangana.

    Natural Resource Potentials of the Deccan Trap

    Black Cotton Soil (Regur)

    Formed due to weathering of basaltic rocks.

    Its high clay content and moisture-retention capacity make it ideal for rain-fed agriculture.

    Supports India’s primary Cotton, Sugarcane, and Soybean belts in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

    Bauxite Reserves (Aluminum Ore) formed due to intensive chemical weathering (lateritization) of basalt in high-rainfall zones. Eg- Kolhapur and Ratnagiri Belt.

    Geothermal Energy Potential-Eg- Clusters of hot springs in Unhavare, Tural, and Rajapur along the Konkan coast.

    Multi-Layered Aquifer Systems-The vesicular (porous) and fractured nature of certain lava flows allows for significant groundwater storage.

    Hydrocarbon-Recent seismic surveys have indicated the presence of oil and natural gas trapped beneath the thick basaltic “lid.” Eg- in the Cambay Basin (Gujarat).

    Strategic Industrial Minerals like Zeolites are formed in the cavities (vugs) of basalt.

    Semi-Precious Gemstones-Eg- Agates, Amethyst, and Chalcedony

    The varying rainfall patterns across the plateau support diverse forest types, from moist evergreen to dry deciduous. Eg- Teak and Bamboo.

    Hydroelectric Power-The steep escarpments (Western Ghats) provide high-head sites for power generation. Eg- Koyna Hydroelectric Project

    Major Challenges

    Over-extraction of Groundwater

    Soil Degradation & Salinity in the sugarcane belt

    Seismic Vulnerability-Eg- 1967 Koyna and 1993 Latur earthquakes

    Eco-Sensitivity-Eg- mining in Western Ghats

    Technological Barriers in Exploration-Eg- High costs of Sub-basalt Imaging.

    Pollution from Industrial Clusters-Eg- Dust pollution in Navi Mumbai and Pune

    Sustainable management is essential to harness these potentials while ensuring long-term environmental stability and regional development.

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