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  • Supreme Court to hear petitions for Criminalization of Marital Rape

    marital rape

    The Supreme Court is set to begin hearing a series of petitions seeking to criminalize marital rape from March 14.

    What is Marital Rape?

    • Marital rape is the act of sexual intercourse with one’s spouse without her consent.
    • It is no different manifestation of domestic violence and sexual abuse.
    • It is often a chronic form of violence for the victim which takes place within abusive relations.

    Status in India

    • Historically considered as right of the spouses, this is now widely classified as rape by many societies around the world.
    • In India, marital rape is not a criminal offense (as protected under IPC section 375).
    • India is one of fifty countries that have not yet outlawed marital rape.

    Reasons for disapproval of this concept

    • The reluctance to define non-consensual sex between married couples as a crime and to prosecute has been attributed to:
    1. Traditional views of marriage
    2. Interpretations of religious doctrines
    3. Ideas about male and female sexuality
    4. Cultural expectations of subordination of a wife to her husband
    • It is widely held that a husband cannot be guilty of any sexual act committed by himself upon his lawful wife on account of their mutual matrimonial consent.

    Why it must be a crime?

    • Associated physical violence: Rape by a spouse, partner or ex-partner is more often associated with physical violence and sexual mutilation.
    • Mental harassment: There is research showing that marital rape can be more emotionally and physically damaging than rape by a stranger.
    • Compulsive relationship: Marital rape may occur as part of an abusive relationship.
    • Revengeful nature: Furthermore, marital rape is rarely a one-time event, but a repeated if not frequent occurrence.
    • Obligation on women: In the case of marital rape the victim often has no choice but to continue living with their spouse.

    Violation of fundamental rights

    • Marital rape is considered as a violation of FR guaranteed under Article 14 of the Indian constitution which guarantees the equal protection of laws to all persons.
    • By depriving married women of an effective penal remedy against forced sexual intercourse, it violates their right to privacy and bodily integrity, aspects of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21.

    Problems in prosecuting marital rape

    • Lack of awareness: A lack of public awareness, as well as reluctance or outright refusal of authorities to prosecute is common globally.
    • Gender norms: Additionally, gender norms that place wives in subservient positions to their husbands, make it more difficult for women to recognize such rape.
    • Acceptability of the concept: Another problem results from prevailing social norms that exist.

    Present regulations in India

    • Indian Penal Code criminalizes rape in most cases, although marital rape is not illegal when the woman is over the age of 18.
    • However, until 2017, men married to those between 15 and 18 could not be convicted of rape.
    • Marital rape of an adult wife, who is unofficially or officially separated, is a criminal offence punishable by 2 to 7 year in prison; it is not dealt by normal rape laws which stipulate the possibility of a death sentence.
    • According to the Protection of Women From Domestic Violence Act (2005), other married women subject to such crime by their husband may demand for financial compensation.
    • They also have the right to continue to live in their marital household if they wish, or may approach shelter or aid homes.

    However, marital rape is still not a criminal offense in this case and is only a misdemeanor.

    Arguments against criminalization

    • Subjective: It is very subjective and intricate to determine whether consent was acquired or not.
    • Prone to Misuse: If marital rape is criminalized without adequate safeguards it could be misused like the current dowry law by the dissatisfied wives to harass and torture their Husbands.
    • Burden on Judiciary: It will increase the burden of judiciary which otherwise may serve other more important causes.

    Way forward

    • Sanctioning marital rape is an acknowledgment of the woman’s right to self-determination (i.e., control) of all matters relating to her body.
    • In the absence of any concrete law, the judiciary always finds it difficult to decide the matter of domestic rape in the absence of solid evidence.
    • The main purpose of marriage is procreation, and sometimes divorce is sought on the ground of non-consummation of marriage.
    • Before giving a final interpretation, the judiciary must balance the rights and duties of both partners.

     

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  • Ancient Votive Stupas found near Nalanda

    stupa

    The Archeological Survey of India (ASI) has discovered two 1200-year-old miniature votive stupas during landscaping activities near Sarai Tila mound on the premises of ‘Nalanda Mahavihara’, a world heritage site in Nalanda district.

    What has ASI found?

    • The stupas, carved from stone, depict Buddha figures.
    • These two votive stupas (offered in fulfillment of a vow) were discovered by the ASI officials during landscaping near Sarai Tila mound within the premises of ‘Nalanda Mahavihara on January 4.
    • These, carved from stone depicting Buddha figures, must be around 1200 year old.

    What are Stupas?

    • The Sanskrit word stupa signifies “heap, mound, and pile” and is derived from the root ‘stup’ “to pile up.”
    • The ashes of Buddha collected were divided into eight parts and stupa was erected on them.
    • The legend of relic sharing has been imagined latter on, after the establishment of relic worship and stupa.
    • This belief was raised only when the Buddha was considered as a God, a Chakravartin.

    Types of Stupa

    • Buddha himself distinguished three kinds of stupa (Chaitya): (i) Sariraka, (ii) Paribhogika and (iii) Uddesika (according to Mahaparinibbanasutta).
    • Beside all these, there are also the sculpted, engraved painted stupas intended to procure merit for the donors.
    • Mostly stupa is containing a relic, that the stupa must have been considered from ancient times as a substitute of the Buddha.
    • In Buddhist history, the Buddha was considered to be a Chakravartin, a universal monarch.

    How votive stupas were erected?

    • As his ashes were no longer available, they were replaced by his written law –i.e. factitious body of the Buddha (Niramanakaya), the relic stupas contain the spiritual relics (Dharama Sarira) and the body of law (Dharamakaya) of these represented as Buddha.
    • These stupas erected over relics are called Sariraka Stupas.
    • Other stupas called Paribhogika were erected over objects used by the Buddha, such as his bowl, girdle, clothes etc.
    • Others called Uddesika(votive) were raised over places which were made famous by the presence of Buddha (Buddha’s presence). These are commemorative stupas.

     

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  • Maghi Mela in Punjab

    maghi mela

    Maghi Mela is being celebrated from January 14.

    Maghi Mela

    • Maghi Mela is held in the holy city of Sri Muktsar Sahib every year in January, or on the month of Magh according to the Nanakshahi calendar.
    • It is one of the most important festivals for Sikhs.
    • Today, the Mela starts on Maghi day and continues for another day or two.
    • People from different parts of the state and even outside come to Muktsar to take a holy dip in the sarovar (lake) of Gurdwara Darbar Sahib and enjoy the festivities.
    • The festival marks the martyrdom of 40 Sikh soldiers in the Battle of Khidrana against the Mughals.
    • In the 1700s, the Mughals and Sikhs were at constant war with each other.

    About Battle of Khidrana

    • In 1704, during the siege of Anandpur Sahib by the Mughals, 40 Sikh soldiers deserted their posts and fled.
    • Upon arriving at their village near Amritsar, a woman named Mai Bhago scolded them and rallied the fighters to return to Anandpur Sahib in the service of their Guru.
    • The freshly motivated soldiers along with Mai Bhago set off towards Anandpur Sahib to help Guru Gobind Singh hold fort against the Mughals.
    • They met the Guru at Khidrana where they took on a large Mughal army, sacrificing their lives in the process.

    Political significance of the Maghi Mela

    • Back in the day, people would arrive in the city days before the actual Maghi day.
    • In the evenings, there would be kavi darbars (poetry sessions) where politicians would speak.
    • This is likely how the political conferences, which can be traced back to the mid-1950s, started.

     

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  • In news: Gangasagar Mela

    ganga

    Lakhs of pilgrims are descending on Sagar Island in the southernmost tip of West Bengal for the annual Gangasagar Mela, being held between January 12 and 14, to celebrate Makar Sankranti.

    What is Gangasagar Mela?

    • Every year during Gangasagar mela, devotees from all over the country gather at the confluence of the Ganga and the Bay of Bengal to take a sacred dip during Makar Sankranti (mid-January).
    • The mela is said to be India’s second largest pilgrimage gathering after the Kumbh Mela.
    • Gangasagar, the largest and the oldest living tradition in Bengal, has been mentioned in Indian epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, putting its existence as early as 400 BCE.
    • Legends suggest that the first Kapil Muni’s temple was constructed by Queen Satyabhama in 430 AD, and the present idol was established by Swami Ramanand in 1437, marking the beginning of a pilgrimage that remains timeless till today.

    About Sagar Island

    ganga

    • Sagar Island is an island in the Ganges delta, lying on the Continental Shelf of Bay of Bengal about 100 km (54 nautical miles) south of Kolkata.
    • This island forms the Sagar CD Block in the Kakdwip subdivision of South 24 Parganas district in the Indian State of West Bengal.
    • Although Sagar Island is a part of the Sundarbans, it does not have any tiger habitation or mangrove forests or small river tributaries as is characteristic of the overall Sundarban delta.
    • This island is a place of Hindu pilgrimage.
    • Every year on the day of Makar Sankranti (14 January), hundreds of thousands of Hindus gather to take a holy dip at the confluence of river Ganges and Bay of Bengal and offer prayers (puja) in the Kapil Muni Temple.

     

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  • Discretionary Haj Quota in India

    haj

    The Union Minister for Minority Affairs has done away with the discretionary Haj quota for pilgrims, in keeping with Prime Minister’s resolve to end VIP culture in the country.

    About Haj Pilgrimage

    • The holy Haj is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims.
    • It is considered to be a mandatory religious duty for all adult Muslims physically and financially capable of doing so.
    • The rites of pilgrimage are performed over five to six days, in Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar.

    How is it managed?

    • For the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the pilgrimage poses a massive logistical challenge.
    • Housing, feeding and facilitating safe pilgrimages for millions of pilgrims who descend upon Mecca from across the world during a brief period of time is difficult, to say the least.
    • Thus, Saudi Arabia allots country-wise quotas which determine the total number of pilgrims who can make a journey from a particular country.
    • These quotas are broadly allotted on the basis of the number of Muslims a country houses. However, the quotas are also major diplomatic issues.
    • Every year, countries lobby Saudi Arabia for more slots. After a Covid-19-related lull, the pilgrimage will resume at its full scale in 2023.

    How India manages this?

    • India signed the Haj 2023 bilateral agreement with Saudi Arabia.
    • According to the agreement, a total of 1,75,025 Indian Haj pilgrims will be able to perform Haj, reportedly the highest in history.
    • This quota allotted to India is then further distributed by the Ministry of Minority Affairs and the Haj Committee of India (HCoI) to various stakeholders.
    • According to the 2018-22 policy document, 70 per cent of India’s total quota goes to the HCoI and 30 per cent goes to private operators.

    Distribution of Quotas

    • Out of the total number of slots with the HCoI, 500 are held under the Government discretionary quota whereas the rest are distributed to different states on the basis of their Muslim population.
    • A draw of lots is conducted in each state to determine who makes the journey in case the number of applicants exceed the number of slots available.

    What are the haj discretionary quotas?

    • The “Government discretionary quota” is further divided in two, 200 seats are with the Haj Committee itself and 300 are with people holding important offices at the Centre. These include,
    1. 100 with the President
    2. 75 with the Prime Minister
    3. 75 with the Vice President
    4. 50 with the Minister of Minority Affairs
    • As per the old policy, these seats could be allocated to individuals who applied for the pilgrimage through normal means but were unsuccessful in getting a slot for the pilgrimage.
    • This quota has now been abolished with these seats being added back to the general pool.

     

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  • Ozone Hole filling up now

    ozone

    The ozone ‘hole’, once considered to be the gravest danger to planetary life, is now expected to be completely repaired by 2066, a scientific assessment has suggested.

    What is Ozone and Ozone Layer?

    ozone

    • An ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms instead of the usual two (the oxygen we breathe, O2, makes up 21% of the atmosphere).
    • It only exists in the atmosphere in trace quantities (less than 0.001%), but its effects are very important.
    • Ozone molecules are created by the interaction of ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the Sun with O2 molecules.
    • Because UV radiation is more intense at higher altitudes where the air is thinner, it is in the stratosphere where most of the ozone is produced, giving rise to what is called the ‘ozone layer’.
    • The ozone layer, containing over 90% of all atmospheric ozone, extends between about 10 and 40km altitude, peaking at about 25km in Stratosphere.

    Why need Ozone Layer?

    • The ozone layer is very important for life on Earth because it has the property of absorbing the most damaging form of UV radiation, UV-B radiation which has a wavelength of between 280 and 315 nanometres.
    • As UV radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere, it heats up the surrounding air to produce the stratospheric temperature inversion.

    What is Ozone Hole?

    • Each year for the past few decades during the Southern Hemisphere spring, chemical reactions involving chlorine and bromine cause ozone in the southern polar region to be destroyed rapidly and severely.
    • The Dobson Unit (DU) is the unit of measure for total ozone.
    • The chemicals involved ozone depletion are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs for short), halons, and carbon tetrachloride.
    • They are used for a wide range of applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam packaging, and making aerosol spray cans.
    • The ozone-depleted region is known as the “ozone hole”.

    Tropical Ozone Hole

    • According to the study, the ozone hole is located at altitudes of 10-25 km over the tropics.
    • This hole is about seven times larger than Antarctica, the study suggested.
    • It also appears across all seasons, unlike that of Antarctica, which is visible only in the spring.
    • The hole has become significant since the 1980s. But it was not discovered until this study.

    What caused an ozone hole in the tropics?

    • Studies suggested another mechanism of ozone depletion: Cosmic rays.
    • Chlorofluorocarbon’s (CFC) role in depleting the ozone layer is well-documented.
    • The tropical stratosphere recorded a low temperature of 190-200 Kelvin (K).
    • This can explain why the tropical ozone hole is constantly formed over the seasons.

    Try this PYQ

    Q.Consider the following statements:

    Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting substances are used:

    1. In the production of plastic foams
    2. In the production of tubeless tyres
    3. In cleaning certain electronic components
    4. As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only

    (b) 4 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”4vi3n055n3″ question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here:[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

     

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  • Paigah Tombs of Hyderabad

    paigah

    The necropolis of noblemen dating from the Asaf Jahi era known as Paigah Tombs Complex in Hyderabad is set to be restored with funding by the US Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation.

    Who were the Paigahs?

    • Paigah tombs are 200 years old and represent the final resting places of the Paigah Nobles of several generations.
    • During the conquest of the Deccan region by Emperor Aurangzeb, the Paigahs came along with him.
    • The House of Paigah was founded by Shams-ul-Umra I also known as Nawaz Abul Fatah Khan Tegh.
    • Their ties with Nizams were further cemented through matrimonial alliances.
    • They also constructed several palaces in the city and the notable amongst them are the famous Falaknuma Palace, Asman Garh Palace, Khursheed Jah Devdi and Vicar-ul-Umarahi palace.
    • They were believed to be rich than the average Maharajah of the country.

    Paigah Tombs

    • Paigah Tombs are the tombs belonging to the nobility of Paigah family, who were fierce loyalists of the Nizams, served as statespeople, philanthropists and generals under and alongside them.
    • They are among the major wonders of Hyderabad State which known for their architectural excellence as shown in their laid mosaic tiles and craftsmanship work.

    Its architecture

    • These tombs are made out of lime and mortar with beautiful inlaid marble carvings.
    • It consists of marvelous carvings and motifs in floral designs and inlaid marble tile-works.
    • It depicts Indo-Islamic architecture, a mix of both the Asaf Jahi and the Rajputana styles of architecture.
    • There is fabulous stucco (plaster) work, representing the Mughal, Persian and Deccan style too.

     

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  • Who was Fatima Sheikh (1831-1900)?

    fatima

    Teaching pioneer Fatima Shaikh was recently honoured with a Google Doodle on her birthday.

    Fatima Sheikh

    • Fatima Sheikh was an educator and social reformer, who was a colleague of the social reformers Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule.
    • She is widely considered to be India’s first Muslim woman teacher.
    • Fatima Sheikh was the sister of Mian Usman Sheikh, in whose house Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule took up residence.
    • One of the first Muslim women teachers of modern India, she started educating Bahujan children in Phules’ school.

    Association with Phules

    • Under pressure from upper castes, Jyotirao’s father evicted Savitribai and Jyotirao from the family home in the late 1840s.
    • With nowhere else to go, the Phules would find shelter at the house of Mian Usman Sheikh, where they would live till 1856.
    • As many from their own community abandoned them, Fatima Sheikh and her brother stood strongly with the Phules and the mission to educate girls and bahujans.
    • Sheikh met Savitribai Phule while both were enrolled at a teacher training institution run by Cynthia Farrar, an American missionary.
    • She taught at all five schools that the Phules went on to establish and she taught children of all religions and castes.
    • Sheikh took part in the founding of two schools in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1851.

    Determined amidst opposition

    • In Pune, a conservative bastion of culture and tradition, the very act of trying to educate the underprivileged caused uproar.
    • It is said that the two women would often have stones and pieces of dung thrown at them while walking in the streets.
    • Fatima specifically is said to have borne the wrath of both upper-castes and radical orthodox sections.

     

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  • Orderly path to net zero

    zero

    Context

    • India’s per capita emissions are relatively low (1.8 tons of CO2e per person), but we are still the world’s third-largest single emitter. India has pledged to get to net zero by 2070. This goal can only be met with urgent actions in this decade, potentially accelerated through India’s recently-assumed G20 presidency.

    Current trajectory

    • Emissions are set to grow: On its current trajectory, India’s emissions are set to grow from 2.9 GtCO2e a year to 11.8 GtCO2e in 2070.
    • Decarbonisation comes with the cost: According to a recent McKinsey report, effective decarbonisation, down to 1.9 GtCO2e by 2070, would require India to spend a total of $7.2 trillion on green initiatives by 2050. This line of sight (LoS) scenario is based on announced policies and expected technology adoption.
    • Investment needed: Deeper decarbonisation an accelerated scenario that would reduce emissions to just 0.4 GtCO2e by 2050, or close to net zero would require $12 trillion in total green investments by 2050. Under this scenario, India could create 287 gigatonnes (GT) of carbon space for the world, almost half of the global carbon budget, for an even chance at limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

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    Memory shot: Net Zero

    • Net zero means cutting greenhouse gas emissions to as close to zero as possible, with remaining emissions re-absorbed by oceans/ forests.
    • China, US, EU and India contribute 75% of total GHG emissions
    • However, per capita GHG emissions for US, EU and China are7,3 and 3 times of India
    • India has set target to achieve net zero emissions by 2070.

    zero

    What India needs to speed up the decarbonization?

    • Orderly transition will benefit but the projects are of heavy investments: To take just one example, If India shifted to a predominantly renewable (and hydrogen)-based energy and materials system, it could save as much as $3 trillion in foreign exchange by 2070. While the investment is large, a vast majority of the abatement projects are in the money.
    • Investment, regulation and capacity building is necessary: Three-quarters of the buildings, infrastructure, and industrial capacity of India in 2050 is yet to be built. We have a choice to invest in current technologies or to invest futuristically. Futuristic investment will need India to take urgent actions in this decade on regulation, technology development, and on technology adoption to make the right investments.
    • Employing the experience in renewable power: In renewable power, the right policies, strong institutions and industrial capabilities built in the last decade are providing India with the base to scale up four to five times in this decade.
    • Making electric vehicles competitive in the market: India also has other advantages. For example, its high taxation on automotive fuels translates to an imputed carbon tax of $140 to $240 per tonne of carbon dioxide. This makes electric vehicles competitive against petrol or diesel ones, explaining the recent rapid growth of electric two-wheelers.

    zero

    Ideas for India’s orderly transition

    • Setting up national and structural decarbonisation plans: Set out five-year, 10-year, and 25-year national decarbonisation plans. Policies that enable carbon prices or blending mandates can make the economics viable. Such policies need to be held steady and require coordination across sectors like power, hydrogen and steel. A national decarbonisation plan would enable timely investment decisions.
    • Defining a national land use plan and consider using barren lands for renewables: India risks being land-short for its dual goals of growth and decarbonisation. For example, McKinsey estimates that renewable power and forest carbon sinks need 18 million additional hectares of land. India would need to maximise the use of barren land for renewable power, urbanise vertically, improve agricultural productivity, and increase forest density.
    • Accelerate compliance with carbon markets: Pricing carbon creates demand signals that accelerate emissions reductions, especially in hard-to-abate sectors. Let’s illustrate this through steel, demand for which could multiply eight times by 2070; right now, much of the new capacity is likely to be added using high-emission coal. With a price on carbon emissions, more expensive green steel becomes competitive against high-emission steel. For example, a carbon price of $50 a ton could make green steel cost competitive by 2030, leading to the possibility of the next 200 million tons of capacity being created through low-emissions technologies.
    • Investing in opportunities: Companies can aim to play on the front foot, investing in opportunities like recycling, hydrogen, biomass, electrolysers, rare earths, battery materials and battery making. Some of these opportunities would take time to mature. Meanwhile, companies could invest in opportunities opened up by decarbonisation of other countries, such as exporting green hydrogen derivatives like ammonia.

    Conclusion

    • To embark on an orderly path to net zero, India needs imagination, realism, determination and a sense of urgency. An orderly transition to net zero could help India decarbonize while creating an engine for growth. We must take steps this decade to set things up, to establish momentum, and to build India right for generations to come.

  • Living Root Bridges of Meghalaya

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in TH.

    Living Root Bridges

    root

    • A living root bridge is a type of simple suspension bridge formed of living plant roots by tree shaping.
    • They are common in the southern part of the Northeast Indian state of Meghalaya. Such a bridge is locally called jingkieng jri.
    • They are handmade from the aerial roots of rubber fig trees (Ficus elastic) by the Khasi and Jaintia peoples of the mountainous terrain along the southern part of the Shillong Plateau.
    • Most of the bridges grow on steep slopes of subtropical moist broadleaf forest between 50m and 1150m above sea level.

    Why is it so unique?

    • As long as the tree from which it is formed remains healthy, the roots in the bridge can naturally grow thick and strengthen.
    • New roots can grow throughout the tree’s life and must be pruned or manipulated to strengthen the bridge.
    • Once mature some bridges can have as many as 50 or more people crossing, and have a lifespan of up to 150 years.

     

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