The southern part of India historically ruled by the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings, was known for its great literature, art, culture, and temple architecture.
It also witnessed fierce battles among these kingdoms led by Raja Raja I.
Who was Raja Raja I?
His reign marked a golden era for the Chola Empire through extensive military conquests, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage.
Ponniyin Selvan (The Son of Ponni) is a Tamil language historical fiction novel with the story of the early days of Prince Raja Raja I (also called Arulmozhivarman).
Here are detailed facts and key events from the reign of Raja Raja I:
Background and Ascension to the Throne:
Full Name:Arulmozhivarman, popularly known as Raja Raja Chola I.
Reign:
He reigned from 985 AD to 1014 AD, taking the throne following the death of his father Sundara Chola.
He was succeeded by Rajendra I.
Military Conquests:
Raja Raja I embarked on several military campaigns that significantly expanded the Chola Empire.
He conquered parts of what is now Tamil Nadu, northern parts of Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, consolidating the Chola influence across the region.
His most notable military achievement was the conquest of the ancient Chera capital of Mahodayapuram and the invasion of Sri Lanka, where he captured the northern half of the island.
Nagapattinam Port was his major naval base.
His success allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya (Sumatra) and Kadaram (Malaysia).
Administrative Reforms:
He streamlined the administrative structure of the empire with precise revenue collection and management systems.
He implemented a well-organized provincial administration with efficient governance, dividing his empire into various provinces under the control of local governors.
Cultural Contributions and Temple Building:
Raja Raja I was a great patron of the arts and architecture. Under his reign, Chola architecture and Tamil literature flourished.
Construction of the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur (Dravidian style).
Completed in 1010 AD
He also supported the revival of Hinduism and promoted Shaivism, actively endowing temples and supporting the livelihood of the temple priests. He called himself ‘Shivapada Shekhara’.
He also allowed for the flourishing of other religiouspractices for example Vaishnavism and Buddhism.
Trade and Diplomacy:
His reign saw an increase in trade and diplomatic contacts with far-off kingdoms, including those in Southeast Asia.
The Chola navy played a crucial role in protecting and enhancing trade routes in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
To promote trade, Rajaraja sent the first Chola mission to China.
About the Battle of Udagai/Udayagiri
It occurred in 1003 CE between the Cholas and the Cheras at Udagai, now known as Udayagiri in Kalkulam taluk of Kanniyakumari district, during the reign of Raja Raja I, the greatest of Chola kings.
It was the bloodiest war in medieval Indian history, where the Cholas plundered Udagai and returned to their headquarters in Thanjavur with tonnes of gold and the best elephants.
The battle began with the conquest of Kanthalur Salai in the Chera Kingdom.
The Chola army was led by Raja Raja’s son Rajendra.
Evidence from Epigraphy
The Discovery of a Chola period epigraphy near Chengam suggests that Salai was an army training centre run by the Cheras.
The training centre was a challenge to the Cholas.
The battle marked the end of the relationship between the Cholas and the Cheras, which had been established through marriages.
Aftermath of the War
The battles terminated the relationship between the Cholas and Cheras during the reign of Rajendra Chola.
In 1004 CE, Raja Raja celebrated his birthday grandly in the Chera kingdom, renaming the village Muttam as Mummudi Chola Nalloor.
He granted the temple at Thirunanthikarai for a seven-day celebration of his birthday.
Subsequently, he returned to Thanjavur with gold, elephants, and cattle.
Kamban Manian, a Chola general, brought a Shiva idol made of emerald to Thirupazhanam near Thanjavur, though it is no longer found there.
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following events in the history of India:
Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja.
Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I.
Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I.
Pala dynasty founded by Gopala.
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
Q Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism? Justify your answer. (UPSC IAS/2022)
Q How the Indian concept of secularism different from the western model of secularism? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2018)
Q What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of Secularism? (UPSC IAS/2019)
Prelims:
Consider the following statements: (UPSC IAS/2020) 1. The Consititution of India defines its ‘basic structure’ in terms of federalism, secularism, fundamental rights and democracy. 2. The Constitution of India provides for ‘judical review to safeguard the citizens’ liberties and to preserve the ideals on which the Constitution is based. Which of the Statements given above is/are correct? (1) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Note4Students:
Prelims: Political Theories; Secularism
Mains: Society; Secularism;
Mentor comment: India since its Independence has been an observer of major democratic shifts, especially when it comes to the Political Parties. In the Indian kind of Parliamentary Democracy, the State is prohibited from patronizing any particular religion as the ‘State religion’ (positive secularism) and is enjoined to observe neutrality. The positive part of the Indian kind of Secularism is that it (the state) has been entrusted to regulate by Law (Procedure established by Law) or by an Executive order (head of govt.). In studies of Religion, the present modern democracies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the near-complete freedom of religion (religious beliefs generally are not subject to legal or social sanctions), and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. However, in present Indian democratic politics, there exist two major binary contradictions – between the modern ‘secular subalterns’ (by R. Gandhi) vs. ‘Hindu subalterns’ (by PM Modi). This is for the first time that India is observing major shift in its Political Representation and the associated subalterns (subordinates).
Let’s learn
_
Why in the News?
The 2024 Indian General Election is being framed as a contest between “Subaltern Hindutva” and “Subaltern secularism”.
What is ‘Subaltern Secularism’?
The concept of “subaltern secularism” refers to the idea of secularism being embraced and practiced by marginalized or oppressed groups in society, often in contrast to the secularism associated with the elite classes or the classes that are in major power. Concerning ‘Secularism’, the “subaltern groups” are those who have been excluded from the dominant discourse on secularism, which has traditionally been associated with the English-speaking elite.
What is ‘Subaltern Hindutva’? : The “subaltern Hindutva” refers to a political strategy that mobilizes marginalized or subaltern Hindu groups by appealing to their sense of honor and identity within Hindu society. This concept emerged as a significant force in Indian politics, particularly since the 2014. Subaltern Hindutva gained traction by addressing the perceived contempt faced in the English-speaking elite circles, especially as more of them became educated.
Agenda of ‘Social Welfare’ set by‘Subaltern Secular’ Group:
On Reservation: They promised a dedicated ministry for the empowerment of the Other Backward Classes (OBC), the creation of a National Council for Social Justice, reservation in the higher judiciary for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and OBCs, and a Rohit Vemula Act for students of disadvantaged sections.
Political representation for weaker sections: Due to the lost regional subalterns in the post-Mandal era, they amended their constitution to reserve 50% of seats to the Congress Working Committee (CWC) for SCs, STs, OBCs, women, and minorities.
Legal guarantees for Minimum Income: They promised “Sampoorna Samajik Suraksha”, and a Nyuntam Aay Yojana (Nyay) as social security that will have legal guarantees for minimum income and social security for the poor.
Social and Health Security: Right to Health, pensions for Single Women, Elderly, and persons with disabilities, a Comprehensive Integrated Child Development Scheme in line with the National Food Security Act, and quality elementary schooling and maternity entitlements are promised.
How does the present ‘subaltern secularism’ differ from then ‘traditional secularism’?
By focusing on marginalized or oppressed groups: In ‘traditional secularism’, the discourse is often dominated by the elite, leading to a disconnect with the masses. On the other hand, ‘subaltern secularism’ challenges this top-down approach by advocating for the inclusion of marginalized voices in shaping secular narratives and practices
By practicing secular values: ‘Traditional secularism’ tends to be associated with the privileged classes and can sometimes overlook the perspectives of marginalized communities, ‘subaltern secularism’ seeks to empower these groups by providing them with a platform to express and practice their secular beliefs within their unique socio-political contexts.
What are the implications of ‘Subaltern secularism’ for Indian Democracy?
By focusing on marginalized or oppressed groups embracing and practicing secular values, subaltern secularism challenges the traditional elite-centric narrative of secularism in India.
Brings Inclusive Representation: It emphasizes the inclusion of diverse voices and perspectives in the secular discourse, ensuring that the concerns and experiences of marginalized communities are acknowledged and addressed within the democratic framework.
Empowering the Marginalized Groups: It can empower marginalized groups by providing them with a platform to express their secular beliefs and practices, enabling them to participate more actively in the democratic process and shaping the political landscape.
Counterbalancing the Dominant powers: By offering an alternative to dominant religious and social hierarchies, subaltern secularism can serve as a counterbalance to forces that seek to marginalize or oppress certain communities based on religious or social identities.
Challenges to Existing Power Structures: Subaltern secularism challenges existing power structures by advocating for a more inclusive and equitable society, where the rights and voices of all individuals, especially those from marginalized backgrounds, are respected and protected.
Political Strategy and Mobilization: Embracing subaltern secularism as a political strategy can help opposition parties like the Indian National Congress mobilize subaltern voters who have been historically marginalized, thereby reshaping electoral dynamics and promoting a more inclusive democracy.
Conclusion: For this strategy (social welfare) to succeed, the ‘secular subalterns’ will need to build robust political campaigns aligned to its new secular thinking, breaking away from its previous characteristic timidity.
Incidences of people drowning down into the Mahi River have become more frequent.
AboutMahi River
The Mahi River originates in the Vindhya Range of Madhya Pradesh (hot semi-arid and watershed region), near Dhar.
It flows northward through Madhya Pradesh before turning westward upon entering Rajasthan. It then moves southwest, passing through Gujarat, and eventually empties into the Arabian Sea.
The river stretches for about 580 kilometers.
Soil Type: The Mahi River Basin consists of Deep Black soil(southern region) and Alluvial soil(northern region).
Major Tributaries: the Som, the Anas, the Panam, and the Goma.
Major Dams: Kadana Dam and the Mahi Bajaj Sagar (Banswara) Dam are significant hydroelectric and irrigation projects on the Mahi River.
Biodiversity: Supports diverse flora and fauna, including endangered species like the Indian Skimmer and Gharial.
Key Features:
It is surrounded by the Aravalli Hills to the north and northwest, the Malwa Plateau to the east, the Vindhyas to the south, and the Gulf of Khambhat to the west.
One of the most notable features of the Mahi River is its crossing of the Tropic of Cancer twice; once in Madhya Pradesh and again near the Gujarat-Rajasthan border.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements:
1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.
2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta.
3. River Teesta falls into Bay of Bengal at the border of India and Bangladesh.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The Conservation and Cultural Archives Division of Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) hosted an exhibition and lecture celebrating Rabindranath Tagore’s birth anniversary in New Delhi.
Tagore’s Journey to France
Tagore had visited the battlefields of the First World War, highlighting his deep humanity.
The narrative includes mentions of Alexandra David Neel, who recommended Tagore during his European tours, and Victoria Ocampo, who taught French to Tagore, enhancing his connection with French culture and intellectual society.
AboutRabindranath Tagore
Details
Birth and Early Life
– Born on May 7, 1861, in Calcutta, India.
Literary Career
– Published his first poems at age 16 under the pen-name ‘Bhanusimha’.
– Key works include “Gitanjali“, “Ghare-Baire“, “Gora“, and “Manasi“.
Music and Art
– Composed over 2,000 songs known as ‘Rabindra Sangeet’.
– Our National Anthem was composed by him and it was first sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta Session of INC.
– Created more than 2,000 paintings, influenced by European expressionism.
– He is said to have given the title of ‘Mahatma’ to Mohandas
– Renounced his ‘Knighthood’ (awarded to him in 1915 by the British King George V) in 1919 following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Cultural Influence
– Wrote the National Anthems of India (“Jana Gana Mana”) and Bangladesh (“Amar Sonar Bangla”).
– Inspired the national anthem of Sri Lanka through a student.
Awards and Recognition
– Awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for “Gitanjali“, the first non-European to win.
– Awarded, and later renounced, a knighthood by British King George V in 1915.
Philosophical Contributions
– Advocated for the incorporation of the best aspects of Western culture with Indian culture to achieve anti-colonialism.
Death
– Passed away on August 7, 1941, in Calcutta.
Legacy
– Revered as ‘Gurudev’, ‘Kabiguru’, and ‘Biswakabi’. Highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the West and reshaping Bengali literature and music.
Additional Contributions
– Advocated for ‘Unity in Diversity’ and ‘National Integration’.
– Spoke at the World Parliament of Religions, Chicago in 1929 and 1937.
– Modernized Bengali prose and poetry, remembered for songs like ‘Ekla Chalo Re’ and his environmental efforts at Santiniketan.
About Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
The IGNCA, New Delhi is a premier government-funded arts organisation in India.
It is an autonomous institute under the Union Ministry of Culture.
It was established on 19 November 1985 by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.
IGNCA is envisioned as a centre for the study and experience of arts in the field of:
Creative literature – written and oral;
Visual arts inclusive of architecture;
Sculpture, painting and graphics to general material culture, photography and film; and
Performing arts of music, dance and theatre.
PYQ:
[2019] Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century’s Indian Renaissance and the emergence of national identity.
[2021] Who among the following was associated as Secretary with Hindu Female School, later known as Bethune Female School?
The National Sample Survey Organization’s and Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (2022-23)prompted researchers to estimate Poverty and Inequality trends, highlighting data comparability and measurement issues.
Present trends of Poverty and Inequality in Indian Society:
1. Poverty Declined:
Poverty ratios declined from 29.5% in 2011-12 to 10% in 2022-23 (1.77% points per year) based on the Rangarajan Committee’spoverty lines.
Poverty ratios declined from 21.9% in 2011-12 to 3% in 2022-23 (1.72% points per year) based on the Tendulkar Committee’s poverty lines. Earlier period estimates showed a decline from 37.2% in 2004-05 to 21.9% in 2011-12 (2.18 percentage points per year).
2. Inequality Declined :
Subramanian’s estimates indicate the Gini coefficientdeclined from 0.278 to 0.269 for rural areas and from 0.358 to 0.318 for urban areas between 2011-12 and 2022-23.
The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among the values of a frequency distribution, such as levels of income.
Bansal et al show similar trends: Gini coefficient for rural areas declined from 0.284 to 0.266, and for urban areas from 0.363 to 0.315 over the same period. (significant decline in urban inequality compared to rural areas between 2011-12 and 2022-23)
Back2Basics:
Lakdawala Committee (1993):
It disaggregated poverty lines into state-specific poverty lines.
Poverty lines: same as Alagh’s committee of 1979. (2400 kcal per capita per day for rural areas and 2100 kcal per capita per day in urban areas.)
Poverty lines were updated using the Consumer Price Index of Industrial Workers (CPI-IW) in urban areas and the Consumer Price Index of Agricultural Labour (CPI-AL)in rural areas rather than using National Accounts Statistics.
Estimates of poverty: 54.9% (All India)
Tendulkar Committee (2009):
Constituted: In 2005
Submitted report: 2009.
Recommendations:
Firstly, the incorporation of private expenditure on health and education while estimating poverty.
Secondly, to shift away from two separate poverty line baskets (PLBs) (for rural and Urban) towards a uniform all-India PLB.
Thirdly, to shift away from Uniform Reference Period (URP) based estimates towards Mixed Reference Period (MRP) based estimates.
Fourthly, A change in the price adjustment procedure to correct spatial (across regions) and temporal (across time) issues with price adjustment.
It concluded that India’s poverty line was Rs. 446.68 per capita per month in rural areas and Rs. 578.80 per capita per month in urban areas in 2004-05.
Estimates of poverty: 37.2 % (All India)
C. Rangarajan Committee (2014):
Constituted: 2012
Submitted report: 2014.
Used a method of calculating urban and rural poverty separately (similar to the Lakdawala committee).
Took into account both food and non-food itemsof expenditure.
Used the MMRP method instead of MRP.
Poverty was estimated on monthly expenditure of a family of five (and not individual as in case of the Tendulkar committee). All three, i.e., Calorie + protein + Fat intake values were taken into account to estimate poverty.
Estimates of poverty: 29.5%
Poverty lines: Rural- Rs. 32; Urban- Rs.47
Methods to Estimate Absolute Poverty by NSSO:
Poverty estimation in India is now carried out by NITI Aayog’s task force through the calculation of poverty line based on the data captured by the NSSO under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI). It uses the following 3 methods:
Uniform Recall (reference) Period (URP): Under URP, consumption data for all items are collected for a 30-day recall period. When URP is applied, the households are surveyed about their consumption in the last 30 days preceding the date of the survey.
Until 1993-94, the poverty line estimated by NSSO was based on URP.
Mixed Recall (reference) Period (MRP): MRP takes into account consumption expenditure for five non-food items (clothing, footwear, durable goods, education, and institutional medical expenses) for a 365-day recall period, and consumption data for the remaining items are collected for a 30-day recall period.
Modified mixed reference period (MMRP): The Rangarajan Committee in its 2014 report recommended MMRP as a more suitable method to measure poverty as compared to URP and MRP methods. The World Bank in 2015 also supported the idea of shifting from MRP to MMRP. Under MMRP there are 3 reference periods as follows:
The 365-dayrecall period is used for clothing, footwear, education, institutional medical care, and durable goods.
The 7-dayrecall period for edible oil, egg, fish and meat, vegetables, fruits, spices, beverages, refreshments, processed food, paan, tobacco and intoxicants and
The 30-day recall period for the remaining food items, fuel, and light, miscellaneous
good and services including non-institutional medical, rents, and taxes.
Measurement issues regarding Poverty Lines and Consumption Expenditure:
Shift Away from Calorie Norm-based Poverty Line: The Tendulkar Committee recognized the inadequacy of a calorie norm-based poverty line. Instead, the Tendulkar Committee indirectly utilized calorie norms by adopting the urban poverty line based on the Lakdawala Committee’s methodology, which included calorie norms.
Need for new Consumption Basket: The Rangarajan Group emphasized the need for a new consumption basket that addresses both adequate nourishment and essential non-food items, alongside behaviorally determined non-food expenditure.
Estimating this new poverty basket required a fresh approach rather than simply updating an old basket with new prices.
Incomplete Capture of Public Expenditure: Despite efforts to impute values for public expenditure items, the imputation process captured only a fraction of the total public expenditure on subsidized or free items.
Complexity in Poverty Measurement: There is no universally agreed-upon method for measuring poverty, leading to variability in estimates.
Constitutional provisions related to eliminating inequalities:
i. [Article 38 (2) ]: Obligation of the State ‘to endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities’ amongst individuals and groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations. ii. [Article 46]: Obligation of State ‘to promote with special care’ the educational and economic interests of ‘the weaker sections of the people’ (besides Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes).
Conclusion: Given the inadequacy of calorie norm-based poverty lines, as recognized by the Tendulkar Committee, there is a need to adopt more effective and real-time approaches that will consider evolving consumption patterns.
Mains PYQ:
Q “The incidence and intensity of poverty are more important in determining poverty based on income alone”. In this context analyse the latest United Nations Multidimensional Poverty Index Report.(UPSC IAS/2020)
The Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra and Sahrdayaloka-Locana have been included in ‘UNESCO’s Memory of the World Asia-Pacific regional register’.
About UNESCO’s ‘Memory of the World (MOW) Asia-Pacific regional register’
Details
History and Establishment
Initiated in 1992 by UNESCO.
Asia-Pacific Regional Committee (MOWCAP) was set up in 1998.
Parent Organization
Overseen by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).
Objective
To safeguard, preserve, facilitate access to, and increase awareness of documentary heritage. Focuses specifically on the Asia-Pacific region.
Examples of Inscribed Items
Includes items like Japan’s “Sugihara’s Visas for Life”, Australia’s “Mabo Case Manuscripts”, and Vietnam’s “Ba Chuc Massacre Archives”.
Impact and Outreach
Supports preservation, digitization, accessibility of documents; provides grants and organizes workshops, meetings, and exhibitions to promote knowledge sharing.
Written by Tulsidas in the 16th century, the Ramcharitmanas is an epic poem in Awadhi, a dialect of Hindi, and is a retelling of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana.
It narrates the life of Lord Rama, his virtues, the ideals of Dharma, and his reign during Ram Rajya.
Hanuman Chalisa is a combination of 40 verses from the same epic.
Panchatantra:
The Panchatantra is a collection of ancient Indian animal fables that dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE.
Originally written in Sanskrit by Vishnu Sharma.
Its stories are crafted as simple yet vibrant narratives that aim to impart practical life lessons through the interactions of anthropomorphized animals.
Sahrdayaloka-Locana
The Sahrdayaloka-Locana is a Sanskrit treatise on poetics written byJagannatha Paṇḍitaraja in the 17th century.
It is considered one of the most important works of Sanskrit literary criticism.
The text discusses the concept of “Sahrdaya“, which refers to a sensitive or discerning reader or critic.
PYQ:
[2016] With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorising of chronicles, dynastic histories and epic tales was the profession of who among the following?
Once again, the Muslim population has become a point of discussion. Last month, PM Narendra Modi referred Muslims in India, suggesting they have a higher birth rate.
Trends of Muslim Population as per Data Point (NFHS-5 2019-21) published on April 23:
Population Trends: The Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister noted a Muslims in the total population increased by 43.15% between 1950 and 2015, the share of Hindus decreased by 7.82% between 1950 and 2015.
The fertility rate of Muslims was 2.36 in 2019-21, much closer to the replacement level. The fertility rate is the average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime. A rate of 2.1 (the ‘replacement level’) means that the population is stable.
Factors behind the High Population Growth of Muslims:
Socio-economic Factors: Socio-economic factors, rather than religion, significantly influence fertility rates. Educating girls, delaying marriage, promoting family planning awareness, and ensuring access to family planning measures are crucial in reducing fertility levels.
Regional Variations: Fertility rates among Muslim women vary regionally, influenced by the social and economic development of states.
Early Marriage and Literacy: There’s a positive correlation between higher fertility rates and early marriage among women aged 20-24. Conversely, a negative correlation exists between literacy rates among women and fertility rates.
Lack of Awareness: Lack of awareness about family planning remains a concern, with a significant portion of women reporting never hearing or seeing family planning messages.
Unmet Demand for Family Planning: Many women, particularly Muslims in certain states, have an unmet demand for family planning due to various factors, including lack of access to contraceptive measures.
Government Intervention: Increasing awareness about contraceptives, improving access to family planning measures, educating girls, and preventing child marriages are essential government functions to reduce fertility rates across religious groups.
Need for Coercive Measures:
Comprehensive Education and Awareness Programs: Implement educational campaigns that promote family planning, gender equality, and reproductive health awareness, targeting both men and women in communities across the country.
Access to Family Planning Services: Ensure easy access to a wide range of family planning methods and contraceptives, including in remote and underserved areas, through government health facilities and community outreach programs.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the mains cause of population increase in India. (UPSC IAS/2015)
Q Analyse the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region, and religion.(UPSC IAS/2022) Q Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail. (UPSC IAS/2021) Q “Empowering women is the key to controlling the population growth.” Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2019)
Prelims: India is regarded as a country With a “Demographic Dividend” This is due to (UPSC IAS/2011) (a) Its high population in the age group below 15 years (b) Its high population in the age group of 15-64 years (c) Its high population in the age group above 65 years (d) Its high total population
Note4Students:
Prelims: Population Trends; Minorities;
Mains: Society; Minorities; Religious demography; Effects of Policies and Programs on Demographics;
Mentor comment: The recent report ‘Share of Religious Minorities: A Cross-Country Analysis (1950-2015)’ conducted by the Economic Advisory Council analyzes the demographic changes in the religious composition of Indian Society as well as across 167 countries from 1950 to 2015. It focuses on the shifting shares of majority and minority religious groups, highlighting trends such as the decline in the Hindu population and the growth of the Muslim population in India. The study emphasizes the importance of understanding these changes as indicators of relative well-being within a country. We need to study this analysis as it is based on the premise that any change in minority populations is influenced by policies related to defining and treating minorities in our country.
Let’s learn
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Why in the News?
The recent working paper titled ‘Share of Religious Minorities: A Cross-Country Analysis (1950-2015)’ by the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM), has major observations on Indian religious demographics.
Key highlights made by EAC-PM Report:
The paper is based on the baseline year as 1950, because this was the time around when the International Human Rights Framework was introduced under the aegis of the newly created United Nations. Considering the global trends of declining majority, India too has witnessed a reduction in the share of the majority religious denomination by 7.82%. According to the Report, the Hindu population decreased by 7.82% (1950-2015), while that of Muslims increased by 43.15%, suggesting a conducive environment in the country to foster diversity. The share of the Christian population rose from 2.24% to 2.36% — an increase of 5.38% between 1950 and 2015. While the share of the Sikh population increased from 1.24% in 1950 to 1.85% in 2015 — a 6.58% rise in their share, the share of the Parsi population in India witnessed a stark 85% decline, reducing from 0.03% share in 1950 to 0.004% in 2015.
South Asian Trends:
Within the neighborhood, the share of the majority religious denomination has increased and minority populations have shrunk alarmingly across countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Afghanistan. Minority populations from across the neighborhood come to India during times of duress.
The present controversy over the EAC-PM Report:
The PM-EAC report on religious minorities in India has sparked debate due to its timing, outdated data, and selective focus.
For example, firstly, it does not highlight the nearly 1,520% increase in share in the total population of Buddhists, for every one Muslim, five Hindus were born during this period.
Secondly, the Hindu population has tripled, and the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of Muslim women saw a drop of 2.05 against Hindu women’s TFR by 1.36, making it controversial.
Despite concerns raised by some, the demographers do not see that the Hindus are losing their majority status, given the historical context and current demographic patterns.
For example, when Hindus could retain their majority status during the 800 years of so-called Mughal rule, they cannot be in danger today.
Present rhetoric and challenges:
Need to have a broader outlook: Focusing solely on Total Fertility Rates to assess a group’s status overlooks broader factors like education and socioeconomic conditions.
Need to survey Public Participation: The representation of a particular religious group in the state’s power structure is a crucial indicator of its well-being.
The Finance Minister recently highlighted the growth of the Muslim population as a positive sign, emphasizing that Indian Muslims enjoy more rights compared to minorities in some Muslim-majority countries.
India is set to become the country with the largest Hindu and Muslim populations by 2050, showcasing the diversity and coexistence within the nation.
What does the Population Data say?
Stabilizing of the Minorities: The data on the decline in Muslim women’s fertility rates, as seen in Census data, indicates a positive trend toward stabilization. (according to the United Nations Population Fund)
Demographers predict that by the end of the century, Muslims may constitute around 18.8% of India’s population, with Hindus maintaining a significant majority at 74.7%.
Regional Variations: Various states have already achieved fertility rates below replacement levels, signaling a broader trend of population stabilization.
Whilethe Population Regulation Bill in 2019or the Population (Control) Bill in 2021has been introduced, some demographers generally emphasize the importance of addressing population dynamics through education, healthcare, and socioeconomic development.
Lack of Data-evidences: Claims of alarming Muslim population growth in certain regions like Assam lack substantial evidence, with data showing different growth patterns across states.
Illegal Muslim infiltration from Bangladesh is generally said to be responsible for the demographic change since the 1970s in Assam.
Are Coercive Methods Counter-productive?
International Norms and the Indian Government stance: Being a signatory to international covenants such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), India has to abide by the international norms on population control.
The United Nations Human Rights Committee has categorically mandated that state parties to ICCPR cannot adopt policies that are compulsory, coercive, or discriminatory.
Even the National Population Policy, of 2000 focused on more relevant socio-cultural factors such as age at marriage, age at birth, girl education, maternal and child health, and voluntary and informed consent over coercive methods.
Conclusion: To address concerns about population growth, efforts should concentrate on improving education and economic opportunities for all communities, including Muslims, rather than resorting to coercive measures.
In a rare event, the night sky over Hanle village in Ladakh was illuminated by the northern lights or aurora borealis.
Concurrently, the southern lights, or aurora australis, were observed in New Zealand and Australia.
What are Auroras?
Auroras are natural light displays that appear as bright, swirling curtains in the night sky.
They are typically seen near the Poles but can occasionally be observed at lower latitudes.
These lights can display a range of colors, including blue, red, yellow, green, and orange, due to the interaction of solar particles with different gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.
The phenomenon is known as:
Aurora borealis in Northern Hemisphere and
Aurora australis in Southern Hemisphere
What causes Auroras?
Interaction with Earth’s Magnetic Field: As the solar wind approaches Earth, it interacts with the planet’s magnetic field, causing some charged particles to enter the atmosphere near the poles.
Interaction with Gases: These particles interact with gases in the upper atmosphere, producing colourful flashes of light. Collision with oxygen produces green light, while interaction with nitrogen results in shades of blue and purple.
Reasons for Aurora in Ladakh:
Intense Solar Activity: Auroras can extend to lower latitudes during periods of intense solar activity, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs).
The CMEs are from the AR13664 region of the sun that has produced several high-energy solar flares
Localized magnetic anomalies: Variations in Earth’s magnetic field could potentially influence the occurrence of auroras in specific areas, including regions at lower latitudes.
Impact on Tech Infrastructure
Auroras can pose challenges to space-dependent technologies and operations.
Disruptions in Global Positioning Systems (GPS), radio communications, flight operations, power grids, and space exploration endeavors may occur during such events.
PYQ:
[2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?
GPS and navigation systems could fail.
Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
Power grids could be damaged.
Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over Polar Regions could be interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
There’s a big argument between political parties about reservation. The BJP said some exaggerated things about the Congress wanting a caste census, suggesting it’s connected to religion.
Current debates on Reservation and Sub-categorization:
Constitutional Provisions: The Constituent Assembly opposed reservation solely based on religion, and the Constitution guarantees prohibition of discrimination based on religion under Articles 15 and 16.
History of Sub-categorization in Karnataka: In Karnataka, all Muslim communities are included within the OBC quota, forming the basis for the BJP’s current campaign.
Sub-categorization for Muslims within the OBC quota has existed in Karnataka since 1995.
The H. D. Deve Gowda-led government introduced it but was later removed by the Basavaraj Bommai-led government. However, the status quo continues after court observation.
Reservation for Muslim and Christian Communities: Socially and educationally backward Muslim and Christian communities are provided reservations under the OBC/MBC category in various states, including Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
Constitutional Language and SC/ST Communities: The Constitution specifies that for SCs, the person should profess Hinduism, Sikhism, or Buddhism, but no such requirement exists for STs.
Congress Manifesto Promise: The Congress has promised in its manifesto to work towards removing the 50% cap placed on reservations, suggesting a potential shift in reservation policy if they come into power.
Affirmative action as per Constitution:
Constitutional Provisions: Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution ensure equality to all citizens in actions by the state, including admissions to educational institutions and public employment.
They also enable the state to make special provisions for advancing socially and educationally backward classes, including OBC, SC, and ST.
Classification of Backward Classes: OBC is a collective term for socially and educationally backward castes, with some states also classifying certain castes as Most Backward Classes (MBC). Reservation percentages vary from state to state.
Indra Sawhney Case (1992): Supreme Court upheld 27% reservation for OBC. Caste is considered a determinant of class in the Indian context, and backwardness cannot be determined solely on economic criteria.
A cap of 50% was fixed for reservations unless there were exceptional circumstances.
Total reservation stood at 49.5% for OBC (27%), SC (15%), and ST (7.5%)—creamy layer exclusion from OBC reservation, with an income limit currently at ₹8 lakhs per annum.
Exclusion of children of certain government officials from the reservation.
Janhit Abhiyan Case (2022): The court upheld the constitutional validity of the reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS). Economic criteria could be a reservation basis, according to the court’s majority opinion.
Affirmative Actions Globally:
In the U.S., there is ‘affirmative action’ that consists of government-approved and voluntary private programs granting special consideration to racial minorities like African Americans and Latin Americans.
In Fair Admissions vs Harvard case (2023), the U.S. Supreme Court, however, ruled that race-based affirmative action programs in college admissions violate the equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution.
In the U.K., the law enables voluntary ‘positive action’ which allows employers to combat the under-representation of disadvantaged groups.
France does not have any affirmative action based on race or ethnicity. It provides educational measures designed to increase opportunities for low-income students.
Way Forward:
Need for Sub-categorization: The Rohini Commission was set up to provide recommendations on sub-categorization among OBC castes, as a significant portion of reserved jobs and seats have been garnered by a small percentage of OBC castes/sub-castes. Similar issues of concentration of benefits persist in the SC and ST categories.
Inclusion of Dalit Christians and Muslims: Dalit Christians and Muslims also suffer from discrimination and lack of opportunities. There is a need to extend reservation benefits to these communities and address their marginalization.
Mains PYQ:
Q Whether National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) can enforce the implementation of constitutional reservation for the Scheduled Castes in the religious minority institutions? Examine.(UPSC IAS/2018)
