Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced his plan to visit and meditate at the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu marking the culmination of the Lok Sabha election campaign.
About Vivekananda Rock:
Vivekananda Rock Memorial is located in Kanyakumari’s Vavathurai beach, Tamil Nadu.
It is situated on a rock island at the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, where the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean meet.
The memorial consists of two main structures: the Vivekananda Mandapam and the Shripada Mandapam.
Historic Significance of Kanyakumari:
Swami Vivekananda is said to have meditated on this rock for two days in December 1892, as he journeyed across India after his return from the West.
Eknath Ranade, the founder of the Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee, proposed the idea of constructing a memorial on the rock.
The foundation stone for the memorial was laid on September 1, 1964, by then-President of India, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.
The memorial was inaugurated on September 2, 1970, by then-President of India, V. V. Giri.
About Swami Vivekananda
Details
Birth and Death
Narendranath Datta (1862-1902)
Message
Spread Ramakrishna’s message, reconciled it with contemporary Indian society, preached neo-Hinduism
Spiritual Foundation
Based on the spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, teachings of Upanishads and Gita, examples of Buddha and Jesus
Philosophical Beliefs
Subscribed to Vedanta, believed in fundamental oneness of God, advocated for blending of Hinduism and Islam
Advocacy for Social Action
Emphasised social action, criticised religion’s approval of oppression of the poor, called for secular and spiritual knowledge for upliftment
Balance between Spiritualism and Materialism
Advocated for a healthy balance between spiritualism and materialism, called for a blend of Western materialism and Eastern spiritualism for global happiness
Establishment of Ramakrishna Mission
Founded Ramakrishna Mission in 1897, used it for humanitarian relief and social work, stands for religious and social reform, advocated service as worship, not a proselytizing body
Philosophy of Ramakrishna Mission
Believes in using technology and modern science for mankind’s service, recognizes the utility of image worship, emphasizes Vedanta philosophy as a unifying force for all religions, open to all men regardless of caste or creed
Physical Establishment
Acquired land at Belur in 1898, shifted Ramakrishna Math there.
PYQ:
What does each of the following quotations mean to you?
[2021] Every work has got to pass through hundreds of difficulties before succeeding. Those that persevere will see the light, sooner or later.- Swami Vivekananda.
[2020] Condemn none: if you can stretch out a helping hand, do so. If not, fold your hands, bless your brothers, and let them go their own way. – Swami Vivekananda. (2020)
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and the mines and geology department to stop any unlawful/illegal sand mining in the Sharavathi River coastal zone.
About National Green Tribunal (NGT)
Description
Establishment
Formed in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act as a statutory body.
Objective
To deal with cases related to environmental issues and ensure speedy implementation of decisions.
Responsible for giving many prominent decisions aimed at environmental protection, including addressing air pollution in Delhi and canceling coal block clearances.
Composition
Headquartered in Delhi, chaired by a retired Supreme Court judge
Included Judicial Members and Expert Panel.
Powers
Empowered to decide on questions related to various environmental laws and hear civil cases concerning environmental issues:
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
Exceptions
Prohibited to hear any issues which are covered under:
The Indian Forest Act, 1927,
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and
Any other laws made by States which are related to protection of trees, forests, etc.
Places
Principal bench in Delhi;
Additional benches in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai.
Governing Principles
Governed by principles of natural justice, not bound by Indian Evidence Act.
Applies principles of sustainable development, precautionary, and polluter pays.
Review and Challenge
NGT orders can be reviewed as per Rule 22 of NGT Rules.
Can be challenged before the Supreme Court within 90 days.
Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction over all civil cases involving a substantial question relating to environment.
Powers vested are the same as in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.
Decisions are binding.
Disposal of Cases
Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.
About Sharavathi River
It originates and flows entirely within Karnataka.
It is among the few westward-flowing rivers in the country and a significant part of its basin lies in the Western Ghats.
Origin: The river originates at Ambutheertha in the Thirthahalli taluk.
Legend: According to ancient legend, the god Rama shot an arrow (Ambu) into the ground to quench his wife Sita’s thirst. The water that poured out was named “Thirtha,” hence the river’s name “Sharavati,” with “Shara” meaning arrow.
Geography and Length:
The river stretches about 128 km (80 mi) and joins the Arabian Sea at Honnavar in Uttara Kannada district.
Jog Falls, formed by the Sharavati River, is located approximately 25 km from Siddapura.
Tributaries and Basin:
Major tributaries: Nandihole, Haridravathi, Mavinahole, Hilkunji, Yennehole, Hurlihole, and Nagodihole.
River basin: divided between Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts.
Pre-Cambrian rocks, including the Dharwar system and peninsular gneiss, dominate the basin.
Soils and Agriculture:
Soils in the basin are predominantly lateritic and tend to be acidic, ranging from clay loamy to loamy.
Four soil orders are found: ultisols, alfisols, inceptisols, and entisols.
Dams:
The Linganamakki Dam, constructed in 1964, spans the Sharavati River, with a catchment area of nearly 1,991.71 km2.
The Gerusoppa Dam, completed in 2002, primarily serves for electricity generation.
Flora and Fauna:
The Sharavati Valley Wildlife Sanctuary declared in 1972, protects diverse ecosystems and endangered species.
The river basin is rich in biodiversity, home to rare species of flora and fauna.
Regulation of Sand Mining in India:
Mines and Minerals Act, 1957
Definition of Sand as a Minor Mineral
Sand is categorized as a minor mineral under section 3(e) of the MMDR Act.
State Governments’ Role
Section 15 empowers state governments to regulate mineral concessions for minor minerals, leading to the formulation of state-specific concession rules.
Control of Illegal Mining
Section 23C places the jurisdiction over controlling illegal mining under the purview of state governments.
Released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, aims to promote scientific and environmentally friendly sand mining practices.
Recommendations
Emphasizes sustainable sand extraction, monitoring, and district-wise mapping of sand availability.
Sand Mining Framework, 2018
Issued by
Released by the Ministry of Mines, provides states with guidance for policy formulation and combating illegal sand mining.
Recommended Measures
Suggests geo-fencing, GPS-enabled transportation tracking, price control, involvement of women’s self-help groups, and exploration of alternative sand sources.
PYQ:
[2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds?
Decreased salinity in the river
Pollution of groundwater
Lowering of the water-table
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements :
Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The ECI’s election announcement lacked sign language interpreters, highlighting the everyday exclusion of Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) citizens.
Present Issue:
India’s societal and structural framework often neglects the needs of Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) citizens.
This exclusion is evident in various aspects of daily life, such as the absence of sign language interpreters during major public announcements and inadequate accessibility in public services.
Sign Language versus Oralism
The Indian education system predominantly employs “oralism,” which emphasizes teaching deaf individuals to use their voices and lip-read, rather than using sign language.
This approach has been criticized for perpetuating social isolation and failing to remove barriers that hinder the integration of DHH individuals.
In contrast, using sign language has been shown to aid cognitive development and prevent linguistic deprivation.
Over 70 countries recognize their national sign languages legally, promoting accessibility and inclusion for deaf citizens.
Present Scenario:
As per WHO estimates in India, there are approximately 63 million people, who are suffering from Significant Auditory Impairment; this places the estimated prevalence at 6.3% in the Indian population.
As per the NSSO survey, currently, 291 persons per one lakh population are suffering from severe to profound hearing loss (NSSO, 2001).
Of these, a large percentage are children between the ages of 0 to 14 years.
What Does the 2011 Census Say?
The 2011 Census reported five million hearing-impaired individuals in India, while the National Association of the Deaf estimates 18 million.
Despite these large numbers, DHH individuals are often excluded from educational and employment opportunities. Only 5% of deaf children attend school, and they face prolonged graduation timelines due to oralist-focused curricula.
Government initiatives for employing the deaf are often ineffective, and there is a lack of ISL recognition, despite repeated demands and protests.
The National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness
The program was initiated in the year 2007 in pilot mode in 25 districts of 11 States/UTs. It has been expanded to other districts too after the 12th five-year plan.
The Program was a 100% Centrally SponsoredScheme during the 11th Five-year plan. However, as per the 12th Five Year Plan, the Centre and the States will have to pool in resources financial norms of NHRM.
However, it falls short of addressing the quality of life for DHH individuals. This program has been expanded to 228 districts of 27 States / U.Ts in a phased manner.
Objectives of the program:
To prevent avoidable hearing loss on account of disease or injury.
Early identification, diagnosis, and treatment of ear problems responsible for hearing loss and deafness.
To medically rehabilitate persons of all age groups, suffering from deafness.
To develop institutional capacity for ear care services by providing support for equipment and material and training personnel.
Components of the Programme:
Manpower Training & Development to grassroots level workers.
Service Provision Including Rehabilitation – Screening camps for early detection of hearing impairment and deafness.
Awareness Generation for early identification of the hearing impaired.
Monitoring and Evaluation.
What Needs to be done?
Official Recognition of ISL: ISL should be recognized as an official language, and its use should be integrated into educational systems and public services. Teaching ISL in schools, colleges, and to the general public will promote inclusivity and fluency.
Inclusive Health Care: Health care systems need to be updated to ensure accessible communication for DHH patients. This includes training more ISL interpreters and reducing barriers for DHH individuals pursuing healthcare professions.
Media and Public Communication: Media channels should incorporate ISL interpretation and subtitles, especially in Hindi and regional languages. Government event announcements should have live ISL interpreters to ensure accessibility.
Employment Opportunities: Creating more employment opportunities for DHH individuals, beyond low-skilled jobs, is essential. This includes training and employing DHH individuals as ISL instructors and ensuring accessible workplaces.
Conclusion: To ensure inclusivity for DHH citizens, India must officially recognise ISL, integrate it into education and public services, improve healthcare accessibility, and expand employment opportunities and mental health support.
Mains PYQ:
Q How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the education system in the country? Elaborate your answer. (UPSC IAS/2020)
A 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck Italy’s Campi Flegrei super volcano, with Pozzuoli as the epicentre. Felt as far as Naples, it’s the strongest tremor in 40 years
Bradyseism Concerns near Campi Flegrei:
Campi Flegrei is prone to bradyseism, where ground elevation changes due to subsurface pressure.
The area, located 50 kilometres from Mt. Vesuvius, is undergoing a new cycle of bradyseism, according to volcanologists.
Over 500,000 people reside in the red zone adjacent to Campi Flegrei, prompting the Italian Civil Protection Agency to update evacuation plans.
AboutCampi Flegrei Volcano
Campi Flegrei, also known as the Phlegraean Fields, is a large volcanic area located in the western suburbs of Naples, Italy.
It is one of the most active volcanic systems in the world and has been active for at least 50,000 years.
Its Volcanic System:
Location: Campi Flegrei is situated within the Campanian volcanic arc in southern Italy, extending from the city of Naples to the Gulf of Pozzuoli.
Geological Formation: The volcanic system of Campi Flegrei is characterized by a large caldera, which is a collapsed volcanic crater, surrounded by numerous volcanic vents, craters, and lava domes. The caldera has a diameter of about 13 kilometers (8 miles).
Volcanic Activity: Campi Flegrei is considered a supervolcano due to its size and potential for large eruptions. It has experienced numerous periods of volcanic activity throughout its history, including explosive eruptions, lava flows, and phreatic (steam-driven) eruptions.
Terrain Features: The landscape of Campi Flegrei is characterized by volcanic features such as craters, fumaroles (steam vents), mud pots, and hot springs.
PYQ:
[2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in ‘2021’ and their impact on regional environment.
[2018] Consider the following statements:
The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The temple’s pavilion or the Saalu Mantap of the historic Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Karnataka collapsed following Torrential rains.
About Virupaksha Temple
Traced back to the 7th century AD.
Built by early rulers of the Chalukya dynasty.
The temple was significantly expanded by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under the rule of Deva Raya II (Prauda Deva Raya) of the Vijayanagara Empire.
However, the most significant expansions and contributions were made during the reign of King Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century.
The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, known locally as Virupaksha or Pampa Pathi, and is associated with the local deity Pampadevi.
Hampi, including the Virupaksha Temple, was declared aUNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986 due to its rich architectural heritage and historical significance.
Main Gopuram: The eastern entrance of the temple features a monumental nine-story gopuram (tower) that is approximately 50 meters high. This tower is intricately decorated with sculptures depicting Hindu myths and deities.
Smaller Gopurams: Other entrances of the temple are also marked by smaller but similarly elaborate gopurams.
Mandapas (Pavilions):
Ranga Mandapa: Added in 1510 by King Krishnadevaraya, this is one of the most elaborately carved areas. The Ranga Mandapa is used for temple ceremonies and performances, featuring pillars with intricate carvings of mythical creatures and deities.
Open Pillar Hall: A large hall with rows of intricately carved pillars that depict various mythological scenes and form an important part of the temple structure.
Kalyana Mandapa: This area is used for celebrating the annual marriage festival of the deities, reflecting both architectural grandeur and cultural significance.
Sanctum Sanctorum (Garbhagriha):
Main Shrine: The innermost sanctum houses the sacred Linga of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva). This area is considered the most sacred and is elaborately decorated.
Lesser Sanctums: Surrounding the main sanctum, there are smaller shrines dedicated to other deities, which are typical in South Indian temple complexes.
Pillars and Sculptures:
Carved Pillars: The temple’s pillars are renowned for their detailed carvings, which depict scenes from Hindu mythology, including episodes from the epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Artistic Themes: The sculptures include a mix of divine figures, mythological animals, and scenes from daily life, showcasing the craftsmanship and artistic sensibilities of the era.
Water Structures:
Sacred Tank: A sacred water tank within the complex is used for religious rituals and ceremonies.
About Vijayanagara Empire
It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who were brothers and possibly former officers in the Hoysala Empire.
Dynastic Rule: Governed by four main dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu.
Capital: The capital was Hampi, in the modern state of Karnataka, India, recognized today as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Geographical Span: At its peak, the empire covered not only Karnataka but also extended into parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
Krishnadevaraya: Considered the greatest ruler of the empire, known for his administrative genius and patronage of arts and literature.
Decline: The Empire suffered a major military defeat against a coalition of Deccan Sultanates in the Battle of Talikota (1565), which led to a significant decline in power.
PYQ:
[2019] Building ‘Kalyana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of-
Chalukya
Chandela
Rashtrakuta
Vijayanagara
[2016] Krishnadeva Raya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was a also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss.
Researchers found traces of many present-day viruses in the bones of two Neanderthals who lived 50,000 years ago, providing a new perspective on their extinction.
Breakthrough Study on Neanderthals
Ancient viruses in Neanderthal DNA samples from skeletons found in Russia’s Chagyrskaya cave.
The study detected fragments resembling three modern viruses: adenovirus (common colds), herpesvirus (cold sores), and papillomavirus (genital warts).
Health Impacts Inherited in Modern Human Beings:
Modern humans inherit various health impacts from Neanderthals, including skin conditions, allergies, metabolism, nicotine addiction, mood disorders, sleep patterns, blood clotting, sense of smell, and UV radiation response.
Who were the Neanderthals?
Neanderthals were a distinct species of hominins that lived in Europe and parts of Asia around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago during the Middle to Late Pleistocene Epochs.
Their evidence was first found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in present-day Germany.
Physical Features:
Neanderthals were robustly built, with a stocky and muscular frame adapted to cold climates.
They had large brains, comparable in size to modern humans, indicating advanced cognitive abilities.
Distinctive features included a prominent brow ridge, large nose, and a receding chin.
Social Life:
Neanderthals were skilled hunters and gatherers, using tools such as stone flakes, scrapers, and spears for hunting and butchering animals.
They utilized fire for cooking, warmth, and protection, as evidenced by the presence of hearths in their archaeological sites.
Evidence suggests they had complex social structures and engaged in rituals and symbolic behaviours, including burying their dead with grave goods.
Habitat and Distribution:
Neanderthals inhabited a wide range of environments, including open grasslands, forests, and even cold tundra regions.
Their range extended from Western Europe to Central Asia, with evidence of populations in regions such as Spain, France, Germany, Croatia, and the Middle East.
Interactions with Modern Humans:
Neanderthals coexisted with early modern humans (Homo sapiens) for thousands of years in Europe and Asia.
There is evidence of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans, with genetic studies indicating that non-African humans carry about 1-2% Neanderthal DNA.
PYQ:
[2019] The word ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to
(a) Fossils of a kind of dinosaurs
(b) An early human species
(c) A cave system found in North-East India
(d) A geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent
Mains: Q What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space? (UPSC IAS/2019)
Q. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India. (UPSC IAS/2015)
Prelims:
Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017? (UPSC IAS/2019)
1. Pregnant women are entitled for three months pre-delivery and three months post-delivery paid leave. 2. Enterprises with crèches must allow the mother minimum six crèche visits daily. 3. Women with two children get reduced entitlements.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Note4Students:
Prelims: POCSO Act; Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP);
Mains: Society; Women Issues;
Mentor comment: Did you know that there are around 1,49,404 total cases of crimes against children, with varying rates across states and union territories? Within this, Sexual crimes are prevalent with a high number of offenses against girls compared to boys. Hence, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act (POCSO) was passed in 2012 to comprehensively deal with the issue of sexual offenses against children. POCSO not only spells out the punishments for offenses but also sets out a system for support of victims and improved methods for catching offenders. Recently, this issue has been contentious, citing the importance of maintaining consistency within the laws and legislation availed by the Indian Government.
Let’s learn.
–
Why in the News?
The “Scheme for Care and Support to Victims under Sections 4 & 6 of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012” which was introduced by the Ministry of WCD has faced criticism for its lack of clarity, inconsistencies, and failure to align with existing legislation.
About the Scheme for Care and Support to Victims of the POCSO Act, 2012:
It is a centrally funded initiative from the NIRBHAYA fund of the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
The scheme seeks to address the challenges faced by minor pregnant girl victims and fill the gaps in existing support systems. It aims to provide integrated support services for emergency and long-term rehabilitation.
Sections 4 & 6: The services provided under this include a comprehensive range of support and assistance for minor pregnant girl victims who have experienced sexual assault or abuse.These services aim to address the challenges faced by these victims and ensure their well-being and rehabilitation.
What are the issues surrounding this Scheme?
Inconsistencies with Legislation:
Incorrect interpretation of Section 27 of the POCSO Act, 2012, regarding medical examination of minors. There is some misrepresentation of the Child Welfare Committee’s authority regarding sexual assault medical examination.
Delaying stipulation in the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) process contradicts the MTP Act. There are limited references to MTP options within the scheme.
Expanded Scope Without Corresponding Revisions: The scheme initially targeted abandoned or orphaned pregnant girls, and now includes all pregnant girl victims under the POCSO Act. This kind of lack of proper redrafting to reflect inclusiveness results in confusion.
Adolescent Sexual Health Education and Prevention: The scheme has failed to address adolescent sexual health needs and perpetuates a reactive approach to sexual violence. There is a need for proactive Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) information and services for youth.
Empirical data suggests cases of pregnancy due to consensual relationships, highlighting the importance of comprehensive SRH education.
Monetary Implications: Proposed financial support includes an initial payment of ₹6,000 and a monthly payment of ₹4,000 until age 21, extendable to 23. Hence, due to the high incidence of child marriages and teenage pregnancies, there is an increased financial burden.
Contrary to Rules and Regulations: The Pregnant victims under the POCSO Act are not automatically classified as Children in Need of Care and Protection (CNCP). The Scheme mandates treating all pregnant girls as CNCP, contrary to POCSO Rules and the Juvenile Justice Act.
Therefore, the unnecessary procedural burdens are imposed on victims due to misclassification
Way Forward:
Streamlined Procedures: Govt. needs to simplify the application and support process to make it more accessible to POCSO victims.
Enhanced Outreach: India needs to increase its awareness through targeted campaigns and partnerships with civil societies and community organizations.
Technology Integration: For timely delivery and efficient implementation, the utilization of technology is necessary to streamline services and provide easier access to support.
Training and Capacity Building: Invest in training for staff and volunteers to enhance service delivery.
Astronomers have identified a new Earth-sized exoplanet, named Speculoos-3b, orbiting an ultracool red dwarf star.
Back2Basics: Red Dwarf Star
A red dwarf is the most common type of star in the Milky Way galaxy.
However, due to their low luminosity, individual red dwarfs cannot be easily observed.
Proxima Centauri, the star nearest to the Sun, is a red dwarf, as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars.
According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the fusing stars in the Milky Way.
About Speculoos-3b
Speculoos-3b is an Earth-sized exoplanet recently discovered orbiting an ultracool dwarf star.
It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Michael Gillon from the University of Liege in Belgium.
It is located approximately 55 light-years away from Earth.
Due to its short orbital period, Speculoos-3b receives almost ten times more energy per second than Earth does from the Sun.
SPECULOOS Project
Project Overview: The discovery was made under the SPECULOOS project, aimed at exploring exoplanets around ultra-cool dwarf stars.
The SPECULOOS Southern Observatory is a project carried out by the University of Liège (Belgium) and the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge (United Kingdom)
Astrophysical Significance of the Discovery
Prevalence of Ultracool Dwarfs: Ultracool dwarf stars, like the host of Speculoos-3b, constitute about 70% of all stars in our galaxy and are known for their longevity, surviving up to 100 billion years.
Importance for Life’s Potential: The extended lifespan of these stars provides a stable environment that could potentially support the development of life on orbiting planets.
PYQ:
[2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of:
(a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth
(b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available
(c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
(d) search for meteorites containing precious metals
New research suggests the Stone Age be termed the “Wood Age” due to advanced wooden tools found in Schoningen, Germany.
About Schoningen Wooden Artefacts
A study of around 300,000-400,000-year-old wooden artefacts excavated from a coal mine in Schoningen, Germany, between 1994 and 2008.
It reveals that these were not merely “sharpened sticks” but “technologically advanced tools” requiring skill, precision, and time to build.
The tools demonstrated a broad spectrum of wood-working techniques including splitting, scraping or abrasion.
Back2Basics: Periodising Human Prehistory
Prehistory vs. History: Human ‘history’ began with the advent of writing, while everything before that is ‘prehistory,’ studied using archaeological evidence and ethnographic research.
19th Century Periodization: Danish archaeologist Christian Jorgensen Thomsen introduced the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age classification based on technological advancements. This classification has been refined to reflect diverse cultural experiences.
The Stone Age Timeline
Beginning: The Stone Age began when hominids first used stone tools, around 3.4 million years ago in Ethiopia, and lasted until about 6,000-4,000 BP (Before Present).
Divisions: The Stone Age is divided into:
Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): Characterized by rudimentary stone tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, ending around 11,650 BP.
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): A transitional phase.
Neolithic (New Stone Age): Beginning roughly 12,000 BP in West Asia, marked by settled agriculture and domestication of animals.
Use of Wood: Preservation Bias and Archaeological Evidence
Stone Tools: Stone tools provide significant insight into the lives and capabilities of early humans. Charles Darwin noted that even the rudest stone tools required a high degree of mental sophistication and physical dexterity.
Other Materials: Evidence shows the use of bones, antlers, clay, and some metalworking alongside stone tools. However, evidence of woodworking is limited due to wood’s perishable nature.
Lesser Evidence of Wood: Wood has been recovered from less than 10 of thousands of Lower Palaeolithic sites (up to around 200,000 BP). The earliest wooden dwellings date to only 700,000 BP, much later than the earliest stone tools.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to the period of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were well-known as
(a) ports handling foreign trade
(b) capitals of powerful kingdoms
(c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture
