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GS Paper: GS2

  • What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

    India’s defence partnerships have evolved in response to shifting geopolitical realities and regional security imperatives.

    Evolution of Defence Partnerships

    Indo-Russian Defence Ties- Based on Cold War-era cooperation, covering nuclear submarines, aircraft (Su-30MKI), and missile systems (S-400, BrahMos).

    Indo-US Defence Ties- Strengthened post-2005 with the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement, followed by defence foundational agreements – LEMOA (2016), COMCASA (2018), BECA (2020), and iCET (2023) – facilitating interoperability, logistics, and technology sharing.

    Significance of Indo-US Defence Deals over Indo-Russian Defence Deals in the Indo-Pacific Context

    Alignment with the Indo-Pacific Vision –

    shared commitment to a Free, Open, and Rules-Based Indo-Pacific (FOIP).

    Regional Presence- The US is a Pacific power with a direct military presence, unlike Russia, whose focus remains continental (Eurasian).

    The LEMOA (2016) enables reciprocal access to military bases – giving India strategic reach from Diego Garcia to Guam, enhancing maritime stability.

    Strengthening Maritime Security and Deterrence

    Operational Interoperability- Foundational agreements such as COMCASA (2018) and BECA (2020) enhance real-time intelligence and data sharing, critical for tracking Chinese naval movements.

    Joint Naval Exercises- India’s participation in the Quad-led Malabar exercises with the US, Japan, and Australia ensures freedom of navigation in the Indo-Pacific sea lanes.

    Indo-Russian defence engagements, like the BrahMos missile project and S-400 systems are less relevant to Indo-Pacific maritime operations.

    Access to Advanced Defence Technologies

    P-8I maritime patrol aircraft, Predator drones, and C-17 Globemasters that enhance India’s maritime strike capability.

    The iCET (Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies) deepens cooperation in AI, space, cybersecurity, and jet engine co-development, advancing India’s defence self-reliance.

    In contrast, Russian defence systems are based on legacy technologies, offering limited cooperation in next-generation warfare domains like cyber, space, and AI.

    Strategic Balance and Regional Stability

    The Indo-US defence partnership enhances collective deterrence in the Indo-Pacific, particularly in the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

    Through coordination under the Quad, India and the US promote capacity building, HADR (Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief), and infrastructure resilience.

    Deepening defence ties with the US diversifies India’s procurement base, reducing overdependence on Russian arms.

    Challenges in Strengthening Indo-US Defence Cooperation

    Strategic Autonomy Concerns as the US expects greater policy alignment (e.g., on Ukraine, Iran sanctions).

    Dependence on Russian Systems – Over 60% of India’s defence inventory still originates from Russia (Su-30s, MiGs, T-90s, submarines). Shifts to US-origin platforms face interoperability and logistics challenges.

    Technology Transfer and Cost Issues – US defence exports involve limited technology transfer and high costs compared to Russia’s Make-in-India-friendly models (e.g., BrahMos).

    The CAATSA sanctions threat over India’s S-400 purchase exemplifies friction points that could impact future defence cooperation.

    Bureaucratic Constraints – Differences in procurement procedures, licensing regimes, and IPR frameworks often delay joint projects and technology-sharing initiatives.

    Way Forward

    Establish a “Defence Innovation Corridor” linking Indian and US industries to promote Make in India-Make for the World defence production.

    Enhance Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) and Naval Interoperability with Quad partners through Malabar, Tiger Triumph Exercises.

    Strengthen the Defence Industrial Base – Facilitate US defence manufacturers to establish production and maintenance hubs in India for regional supply chain security.

    Maintain Strategic Autonomy with issue-based convergence rather than alignment

    Use strategic dialogue platforms (2+2 Ministerial, DTTI, Quad) to address divergences

    The Indo-US defence partnership is vital for ensuring a free, open, and stable Indo-Pacific. It must be driven by trust, technology, and transparency.

  • Judicial Legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers as envisaged in the Indian Constitution. In this context justify the filing of large number of public interest petitions praying for issuing guidelines to executive authorities.

    Doctrine of separation of powers is derived from Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws (1748) and divides state power into Legislature, Executive, Judiciary to prevent concentration and arbitrariness.

    Judicial legislation, i.e., when courts make laws or frame policies, is generally inconsistent with this doctrine.

    Separation of Powers in India

    Art. 245-246 & 368 – Only legislature can enact/amend laws under

    Article 105, 194 – Executive cannot breach parliamentary privileges

    Art. 122, 212 – Courts cannot inquire into parliamentary/state legislature proceedings ().

    Art. 124(4) Judicial Conduct Immunity

    Judicial Independence – Security of tenure, salaries, and contempt powers.

    Judicial Legislation Antithetical to Separation of Powers

    Encroachment on Legislative Domain undermines Separation of Powers.

    Undermines Democratic Accountability – judges are unelected and not responsible for policy outcomes. Eg- Criticism of Ban on firecrackers (2017)

    Creates judicial supremacy and Judicial governance (Bhikhu Parekh) – Eg- Prakash Singh guidelines on police reforms

    Weakens Public trust in Legislature and Executive – Eg- Coal Allocation Case (2014) – Court cancelled 214 coal blocks, creating policy paralysis in the energy sector.

    Courts lack technical and administrative expertise for framing complex policy guidelines. Eg- Ban on diesel vehicles in NCR (2016)

    Judicial itself has warned against overreach in

    Aravali Golf Club v. Chander Hass (2008)- Court warned against “judicial enthusiasm turning into judicial adventurism.”

    State of Tamil Nadu v. State of Kerala (2014)- Reiterated that courts should not enter the policy-making domain.

    Justification for Filing Large Number of PILs

    Executive Inaction or Policy Vacuum Eg- Vishaka guidelines on workplace sexual harassment.

    Protection of Fundamental Rights – Eg- Hussainara Khatoon (1979) case Recognized right to speedy trial as FR under Article 21.

    Accountability and Transparency – Eg- In Vineet Narain case, SC issued directions to make CBI independent from political interference.

    Access to Justice – Liberal locus standi allows citizens to represent the poor and marginalized.

    Legislative or Administrative Delay – Eg- Navtej Johar (2018)- Decriminalized homosexuality after years of legislative inaction.

    Constitutional Mandate under Article 141 and 142 to uphold complete justice.

    Rise of Civil Society Activism – NGOs and activists use PILs to expose violations and empower citizens.Eg- M.C. Mehta Cases on environmental protection.

    Judicial Review powers under Article 13, 32, 226 to uphold Constitutional Supremacy

    Speedy Justice – timely intervention in cases affecting public interest. Eg- Olga Tellis (1985)- Protected the right to livelihood.

    Public Trust in Judiciary – Rise in PILs reflects citizens’ confidence in the judiciary as the last resort for justice.

    Issues

    Judicial Overreach- Encroachment into executive and legislative domains. Eg- SC ban on firecrackers was criticized for overreach.

    Weak Enforcement Capacity- Eg- Prakash Singh Police Reforms (2006) – Non-compliance by most states.

    Frivolous or Politically Motivated PILs increase pendency (more than 5Cr cases pending) Eg- Misuse in Election-related PILs delaying legitimate processes.

    Lack of Judicial Accountability- Eg- In-House Inquiry (Justice Ramaswamy case) exposed inadequacies in judicial discipline.

    Opaque Collegium System- criticised for lack of transparency and nepotism. Eg- uncle judge syndrome (law commission)

    Inconsistency and Selective Intervention- Uneven judicial response to similar issues affects credibility. Eg- Contrasting stances in Bail cases.

    Frequent judicial intrusion weakens separation of powers.

    Way Forward

    Institutional Restraint- Judiciary must uphold separation of powers

    Enforce strict scrutiny of PILs to prevent misuse for personal, political, or publicity motives.

    Develop a judgment-monitoring mechanism to ensure effective execution of court orders

    Promote constitutional literacy and encourage responsible use of judicial remedies by citizens.

    Dedicated PIL Cells in High Courts

    PILs represent participatory constitutionalism, ensuring that justice remains accessible, accountable, and rights-oriented.

  • The strength and sustenance of local institutions in India has shifted from their formative phase of ‘Functions, Functionaries and Funds’ to the contemporary stage of ‘Functionality’. Highlight the critical challenges faced by local institutions in terms of their functionality in recent times.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”. However, they have remained Half Baked Cake (Mani Shankar Iyer Committee).

    Issues in the Formative Phase of Local Governance (3Fs)

    Functions-

    Incomplete devolution of 11th & 12th Schedule subjects

    Limited administrative authority

    Functionaries-

    Lack of training & capacity

    Bureaucratic dominance over elected reps

    Funds-

    High fiscal dependence on states/centre

    Conditional and tied grants

    Critical Challenges to Functionality of Local Institutions

    Political Challenges

    Delayed Elections- Eg- Maharashtra’s 27 Municipal Corporations functioning under administrators since 2022.

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    With rural population falling from 75% (1990) to about 60%, national development priorities have moved toward urban governance and municipal reforms.

    Functional and Planning Challenges

    District and Metropolitan Planning Committees are largely non-functional in most states.

    Poor digital capacity- Limited use of e-Gram Swaraj and GIS-based planning.

    Administrative Challenges

    Shortage of Functionaries- Severe staff vacancies-only 0.67 secretaries per Gram Panchayat (falling to 0.33 in Uttar Pradesh).

    Parastatal Dominance reduces the role of elected bodies. Eg- Delhi Jal Board

    Accountability issues- Weak social audit mechanisms and poor grievance redressal.

    Financial Challenges

    Declining Fiscal Autonomy- Local bodies generate <1% of GDP as own-source revenue (RBI, 2022).

    Post-GST Revenue Loss- Subsumption of octroi, market, and entertainment taxes.

    Irregular constitution and poor implementation of SFC recommendations.

    Social and Governance Challenges

    Elite Capture- Local elites dominate decision-making, sidelining marginalized voices.

    Despite reservation, proxy representation (Sarpanch Pati) reduces women’s leadership effectiveness.

    Way Forward

    Empower through Performance Grants linked to service outcomes (as per 15th Finance Commission).

    Regular Capacity Building via State Institutes of Rural/Urban Development.

    Digitization of Panchayats (e-GramSwaraj) for transparency and efficiency.

    Operationalize DPCs/MPCs for integrated local planning.

    Adopting Best Practices – Eg- Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign grants local bodies control over 40% of the state’s plan budget.

    Local bodies are the cornerstones of participatory democracy and good governance. Their functional capacity and autonomy are essential for the constitutional vision of decentralization.

  • Rajya Sabha has been transformed from a ‘useless stepney tyre’ to the most useful supporting organ in past few decades. Highlight the factors as well as the areas in which this transformation could be visible.

    The Rajya Sabha, conceptualised under the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1918) and institutionalised by the Government of India Act, 1919, was envisioned as the Council of States-a forum of mature reflection.

    Rajya Sabha as a “Useless Stepney Tyre”

    Limited Legislative Powers – cannot initiate or amend Money Bills (Article 110)

    No Role in Government Formation – Council of Ministers is collectively responsible only to the Lok Sabha

    Joint sittings (Article 118) are dominated by Lok Sabha’s numerical majority.

    Viewed as a delaying or obstructive chamber rather than a constructive revising body.

    Cannot influence budgetary priorities or grants, diminishing its fiscal relevance.

    Factors Behind Transformation into a Useful Supporting Organ

    Rise of Coalition Politics – Need for consensus enhanced Rajya Sabha’s negotiating role.

    Federal Assertion – The rise of regional parties since the 1980s has strengthened federal politics

    Diversified Composition – Eminent professionals, academicians, and experts improved deliberation quality.

    Revitalized Committee System – Department-related committees (many chaired by RS members) improved policy scrutiny.

    Continuity and Stability – Not subject to dissolution, ensuring legislative stability and institutional memory.

    Judicial and Media Attention – Live telecast of sessions and judicial oversight improved transparency and accountability.

    Active Opposition Role – RS became a check on executive dominance during coalition and one-party phases alike.

    Areas Where Transformation is Visible

    Legislative Review and Refinement – Rajya Sabha acts as a revising chamber. Eg- Referred the GST Constitutional Amendment Bill (2014) to a Select Committee

    Federal Balance – Protects state interests against central overreach. Eg- discussed federal fiscal implications of the National Education Policy, 2020.

    Special Constitutional Powers – Can authorise creation of All-India Services (Article 312), make laws on State List (Article 249)

    Deliberative Forum – Provides in-depth, issue-based policy debates on national concerns. Eg- debates on COVID-19 management (2021)

    Accountability and Oversight – Through Question Hour, Zero Hour, and Calling Attention Motions. Eg- Rajya Sabha discussions led to clarifications on Pegasus spyware issue (2021) and farmers’ protests (2020-21).

    Voice to smaller and regional parties to represent state and sectional interests. Eg- state-specific issues such as river water disputes and fiscal devolution.

    Being a permanent chamber, it ensures institutional memory and continuity during Lok Sabha dissolutions.

    Way Forward-

    Equal representation for each state, so that large states do not dominate the proceedings. (US system)

    More debates, less disruptions- Eg – Introduce ‘whip-free debates’ for non-financial and non-confidence issues.

    Amend procedures so that laws disguised as Money Bills can be challenged and reviewed.

    NCRWC, 2002 – Called for a clear procedure for nominating eminent members under Article 80.

    Punchhi Commission (2010)– expanding the electoral college for Rajya Sabha to include panchayats and municipalities.

    As envisaged by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, RS must act as a “safety valve of federalism”, ensuring reasoned, representative, and regionally inclusive governance in India’s democracy.

  • Which steps are required for constitutionalization of a Commission? Do you think imparting constitutionality to the National Commission for Women would ensure greater gender justice and empowerment in India? Give reasons.

    “The true measure of a democracy is how it treats its weakest members.” – Mahatma Gandhi

    The Indian state has established a network of statutory and constitutional commissions to uphold equality, dignity, and justice as envisioned in Articles 14-17, 21, and 46 of the Constitution.

    Steps Required for Constitutionalization of a Commission

    Constitutional Amendment Bill under Article 368 to insert a new article providing for the commission’s structure, powers, and functions.

    Parliamentary Approval- The bill must be passed by a special majority – i.e., a two-thirds majority of members present and voting, and a majority of the total membership of each House.

    After parliamentary passage, the bill must receive assent of the President of India.

    The amendment must be notified in the Gazette and necessary rules and procedures must be framed for operationalization.

    Would Constitutional Status to NCW Ensure Greater Gender Justice and Empowerment?

    Arguments in Favour

    Enhanced Autonomy and Authority- greater independence from executive control and political interference.

    Its reports and directives would carry greater legal and moral weight, improving government accountability.

    Funding and staffing could be constitutionally guaranteed, reducing dependence on yearly budgetary allocations.

    Symbolic Empowerment- signify strong political commitment to women’s rights and gender equality.

    Similar bodies like NCSC (Art. 338) and NCST (Art. 338A) already enjoy constitutional status; extending the same to women ensures institutional parity.

    Better Enforcement Mechanism- Constitutional backing can ensure stronger monitoring of gender-related laws (e.g., Domestic Violence Act, Sexual Harassment Act).

    Improved Coordination- With constitutional status, NCW could act as a nodal authority linking state commissions and ministries on gender issues.

    Arguments Against

    Constitutionalization won’t automatically improve outcomes unless implementation capacity and political will increase. Eg- non-binding recommendations

    Risk of politicization and executive interference in appointments like NHRC

    Existing Powers Underutilized- limited investigative capacity and enforcement follow-up.

    Risk of Bureaucratization- Constitutional status may make the body more formal.

    Institutional issues like vacancies, limited funding and delays in appointments may persist.

    Way Forward

    Create an Inter-Commission Coordination Council chaired by NHRC to avoid overlaps.

    Strengthen NCW’s investigative and enforcement powers within the existing legal framework.

    Ensure time-bound government response to NCW recommendations.

    Provide financial and staffing autonomy through statutory amendment.

    Simplify public interface through a single online grievance portal linked to all commissions.

    The 3R approach of Reform, Reorientation and Restructuring can enhance functioning of NCW as an effective Bulwark Of Democracy in India.

  • “Institutional quality is a crucial driver of economic performance”. In this context suggest reforms in Civil Service for strengthening democracy.

    Civil services, as the steel frame and core institution of governance, plays a decisive role in policy formulation, implementation, and Economic growth.

    Reforms in Civil Service to Strengthen Democracy

    Political Reforms

    Political Neutrality: Ensure insulation from political interference through Civil Services Boards as per T.S.R. Subramanian Case (2013).

    Transparency in Appointments: Adopt merit-based and open selection for key administrative posts.

    Continuity in Tenure: Fix minimum tenure for key field officers to ensure policy stability and accountability.

    Decentralisation of Power: Strengthen PRIs and ULBs by devolving funds, functions, and functionaries, promoting participatory democracy.

    Institutional Reforms

    Capacity Building: Implement Mission Karmayogi for continuous learning, digital skills, and behavioural transformation.

    Performance Management: Introduce outcome-based appraisals and digital tools like SPARROW.

    Code of Ethics: Institutionalise a Civil Services Code of Ethics promoting integrity, impartiality, and empathy.

    Ethical Auditing: Conduct periodic integrity audits through initiatives like Mission Satyanistha (Indian Railways).

    Reform Commission: Establish a Permanent Civil Service Reform Commission for policy evaluation and innovation.

    Economic Reforms

    Efficiency and Cost Optimisation: Encourage outsourcing of non-core functions for better utilisation of resources.

    Technology Integration: Use AI, CPGRAMS, and e-Office for efficient, transparent, and real-time service delivery.

    Social Reforms

    Citizen-Centric Governance: Implement Citizen’s Charters and Right to Service Acts to ensure time-bound service delivery.

    Public Participation: Enhance citizen engagement platforms such as Prashasan Gaon Ke Sang Abhiyan (Rajasthan).

    Value Orientation: Reinforce integrity, empathy, compassion, and public service motivation among officers.

    Inclusivity: Promote gender and social diversity in recruitment and leadership positions.

    A reformed service structure is essential for fulfilling the 2nd ARC’s vision of a proactive, accountable, and responsive administration.

  • “The emergence of Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss.

    The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), marked by digital technologies, AI, IoT, blockchain, and big data, is transforming governance, economy, and society. Klaus Schwab (WEF), “the Fourth Industrial Revolution is fundamentally changing how governments serve citizens.”

    Core Pillars of Industry 4.0:

    Autonomous Robots

    Augmented Reality

    Cloud Computing

    Internet of Things (IoT)

    System Integration

    Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)

    Cybersecurity

    Simulation / Digital Twin

    Extensive Data Analysis (Big Data & AI)

    Digital Revolution Enabling e-Governance

    Data-Driven Governance: Use of real-time data and analytics for decision-making. Eg- PRAGATI Portal.

    Efficient Service Delivery: Eg- UMANG, DigiLocker, e-SHRAM, PM-KISAN.

    Administrative Efficiency through automation and paperless systems. Eg- e-Office, SPARROW, CPGRAMS.

    Transparency & Accountability: Eg- RTI Portal, NJDG, GeM, Open Data Portal.

    Financial Inclusion through UPI, DBT, JAM Trinity. Eg- 491 million UPI users

    Participatory governance through MyGov, CPGRAAMS.

    Digital Connectivity through Digital India, BharatNet, PM-WANI, 5G rollout.

    Cybersecurity: Creation of secure cyberspace via CERT-In and National Cyber Security Policy 2023.

    E-Administration: e-Courts, GeM, DigiLocker replacing manual, paper-based procedures.

    Digital Literacy: PMGDISHA trained 6.3 crore citizens across 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats.

    promoting AI-based decision-making.

    Thus, the future of governance is data-led, citizen-centric, and digitally empowered.

  • Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic.

    The WHO, established in 1948, is the UN’s specialized agency responsible for global public health coordination. During the COVID-19 pandemic, its actions were criticized for lack of timeliness, transparency, and independence.

    Positive Role of WHO during the Pandemic

    Early Alerts: Declared COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) in January 2020.

    Technical Guidance: Issued scientific protocols, travel advisories, and surveillance guidelines to member states.

    Global Solidarity Mechanisms: Launched the Access to COVID-19 Tools Accelerator (ACT-A) and COVAX Facility to ensure equitable vaccine distribution.

    Information Sharing: Provided daily situation reports and facilitated exchange of data among countries.

    Support to Developing Nations through logistics, diagnostics, and training.

    Research and development about the virus – transmission, mutation, and vaccination.

    Criticisms and Limitations

    Delayed Declaration of Pandemic: Accused of underestimating the early outbreak in Wuhan and relying too heavily on China’s official data.

    Political Influence: inadequate scrutiny of China’s early containment measures.

    Weak Enforcement Powers: WHO lacks authority to compel nations to share data or enforce health regulations under the International Health Regulations (2005).

    Vaccine Inequity: Despite COVAX, vaccine access remained highly unequal.

    Funding Dependence: Over 80% of WHO’s budget comes from voluntary contributions.

    Confusion among public and healthcare professionals due to inconsistencies in communication

    Way Forward

    Strengthen the International Health Regulations (IHR) for faster response and accountability.

    Establish a Global Health Emergency Council for coordinated crisis action.

    Financial autonomy to reduce donor dependency.

    To ensure future global health security, WHO must evolve into a more independent, transparent, and empowered institution, capable of acting decisively in the face of global emergencies.

  • ‘Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries’. Comment with examples.

    With over 32 million PIOs and NRIs spread across 200 countries, the Indian diaspora has become one of the most influential transnational communities in the world.

    Role of Indian Diaspora in Politics

    Political Representation: Growing Indian-origin leadership at top levels. Eg- Kamala Harris (US Vice President), Rishi Sunak (UK Prime Minister), Leo Varadkar (Irish PM)

    Legislative Influence: shape progressive policies on trade, technology, and social justice. Eg- Pramila Jayapal, Ro Khanna

    Policy Advocacy: Indian diaspora groups like USINPAC and Indiaspora influence US policy on immigration (H-1B visas), education, and bilateral cooperation.

    Community Mobilisation: Eg- Political events like ‘Howdy Modi’ and ‘Namaste Trump’

    Bridge for Strategic Partnerships by fostering dialogue and diplomacy. Eg- role in Indo-US civil nuclear deal

    Representation of Diversity: Their success promotes multiculturalism and inclusion in Western democracies

    Peacebuilding Role by facilitating intercultural dialogue and countering xenophobia. Eg- Zohran Mamdani, the newly elected mayor of New York City.

    Role of Indian Diaspora in Economy

    Corporate Leadership: Sundar Pichai (Google), Satya Nadella (Microsoft) etc drive innovation and digital transformation.

    Entrepreneurship and Start-ups: Eg- Rishi Khosla (OakNorth Bank, UK) and Kunal Nayyar (Series Investor)

    Over 3 lakh Indian IT professionals in the US and highest number of EU Blue Card holders among immigrants in Europe.

    Research and Innovation: Strong presence in STEM fields, academia, and medicine

    Philanthropy and Social Impact: contribute to educational endowments, healthcare funding, and start-up mentoring.

    Their high purchasing power and participation in services, finance, and technology contribute directly to GDP and employment growth in host countries.

    Challenges

    Security Threats – Eg- Khalistani groups in Canada

    Issues of discrimination and racism

    Brain Drain concerns

    As PM Narendra Modi noted, “The Indian diaspora is our global ambassador of talent, trust, and transformation.” Thus, sustained institutional dialogue is essential.

  • Indian Constitution exhibits centralising tendencies to maintain unity and integrity of the nation. Elucidate in the perspective of the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897; The Disaster Management Act, 2005 and recently passed Farm Acts.

    According to Paul Brass “Indian federalism is highly centralized, designed more to maintain unity than to promote autonomy.”

    Centralising Tendencies in the Indian Constitution

    Legal (Constitutional & Legislative)

    Residuary Powers (Art. 248, Entry 97 Union List) – Vested in Parliament, not States.

    Dominance of Union List (Art. 246) – 100 subjects; State List is narrower.

    Concurrent List (Art. 254) – Union law prevails in case of conflict.

    Emergency Provisions (Arts. 352, 356, 360) – Centre can override State powers.

    Parliament can legislate on State subjects under Art. 249.

    Governor’s Role (Art. 200, 201)

    Administrative

    All-India Services (Art. 312)

    Office of Governor – Agent of Centre in States

    Union’s directions to States (Arts. 256-257) – States bound to ensure compliance with Union laws.

    Deployment of Armed Forces

    Financial

    Centralised Finance – Major revenue sources (income tax, customs, excise, GST) with Union.

    Borrowing restrictions (Art. 293) – States require Centre’s consent to borrow.

    Cess and surcharges (Art. 270) not shared with States (Eg- Education Cess, Health Cess)

    GST regime – Erodes States’ fiscal autonomy.

    Centralising Tendencies in Indian Constitution

    Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897

    Public Health is a State List subject (Entry 6, List II), but the Centre can issue uniform guidelines.

    Empowers Centre to declare any disease as epidemic.

    Union can issue regulations for prevention and containment.

    Authority to restrict movement and detain individuals during epidemics.

    Centre can override conflicting State laws.

    Disaster Management Act, 2005

    Law and order and public health are primarily State subjects, but Act was used to declare nationwide lockdowns, interstate movement controls, and essential supply chains during COVID-19.

    State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA) include central representatives.

    Union controls allocation and distribution of resources across States.

    Centre can override States’ decisions in disaster response.

    National Response Force primarily drawn from central armed forces.

    Farm Acts, 2020 (repealed in 2021)

    Though Agriculture is a State List subject, Parliament legislated under Concurrent List (Entry 33).

    Weakened State APMC mandis by allowing farmers to sell outside their jurisdiction.

    Dispute resolution mechanisms

    Gave Centre greater control over regulation of essential commodities.

    Enhanced central role in agri-marketing and e-marketing of produce.

    Analysis of Centralising Tendencies

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Thus, such Acts must be exercised with consultation and cooperation.