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  • [1st June 2026] The Hindu OpED: Shaping the next chapter in India-Canada relations

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2019] “The time has come for India and Japan to build a strong contemporary relationship, one involving global and strategic partnership that will have a great significance for Asia and the world as a whole.” Comment.Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of how bilateral relations evolve into comprehensive strategic partnerships driven by economic, geopolitical, technological, and security considerations. Similar to India-Japan ties, the India-Canada relationship is moving beyond traditional diplomacy towards a broader partnership

    Mentor’s Comment

    India-Canada relations are back in focus following Canadian Prime Minister Mark Carney’s visit to India in February 2026, his first visit to India since assuming office, and the revival of discussions on the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA). The visit marks a significant attempt by both countries to reset ties after a period of diplomatic tensions.

    Why Is the Revival of India-Canada Relations Significant at This Juncture?

    1. Diplomatic Re-engagement: Marks a shift from recent diplomatic strains towards structured economic and strategic engagement.
    2. CEPA Revival: Restarts negotiations on the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement after prolonged uncertainty.
    3. Trade Ambition: Targets bilateral trade of $50 billion by 2030, signalling renewed economic confidence.
    4. Strategic Timing: Occurs amid global supply-chain diversification, geopolitical realignments, and Indo-Pacific competition.
    5. Economic Complementarity: Connects Canada’s resource-rich economy with India’s rapidly growing manufacturing and consumption base.

    How Do India and Canada Complement Each Other Economically?

    Economic Synergies

    1. Market Access: India provides one of the world’s largest consumer markets and expanding middle-class demand.
    2. Resource Endowment: Canada possesses substantial reserves of critical minerals, uranium, clean energy resources, and agricultural commodities.
    3. Manufacturing Potential: India offers large-scale manufacturing capacity and skilled human resources.
    4. Investment Opportunities: Facilitates two-way investments across technology, healthcare, infrastructure, and advanced manufacturing.

    Strategic Complementarity

    1. Critical Minerals: Supports India’s energy transition and semiconductor ambitions through reliable mineral supplies.
    2. Clean Energy Cooperation: Strengthens collaboration in renewable energy and decarbonisation initiatives.
    3. Supply-Chain Resilience: Reduces dependence on concentrated supply networks.

    Why Is the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) Central to the Relationship?

    Trade Liberalisation

    1. Market Integration: Reduces tariff and non-tariff barriers.
    2. Investment Facilitation: Improves investor confidence and regulatory predictability.
    3. Business Mobility: Enhances movement of professionals and service providers.
    4. Export Expansion: Creates opportunities in manufacturing, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and services.

    Strategic Outcomes

    1. Economic Diversification: Helps both economies reduce dependence on traditional trading partners.
    2. Commercial Confidence: Converts political goodwill into measurable economic outcomes.
    3. Institutional Framework: Provides long-term predictability for businesses and investors.

    What Role Do Investments Play in Strengthening Bilateral Relations?

    Indian Investments in Canada

    1. Technology Sector: Expands innovation partnerships and digital collaboration.
    2. Life Sciences: Supports pharmaceutical and biotechnology cooperation.
    3. Manufacturing: Generates employment and deepens industrial linkages.

    Canadian Investments in India

    1. Infrastructure Financing: Supports large-scale development projects.
    2. Clean Energy Projects: Facilitates green transition initiatives.
    3. Financial Services: Expands capital availability for growth sectors.
    4. Digital Ventures: Supports innovation and startup ecosystems.

    Economic Impact

    1. Employment Generation: Creates jobs in both economies.
    2. Capital Formation: Enhances productive investment flows.
    3. Commercial Trust: Strengthens long-term business confidence.

    How Does the Indian Diaspora Function as a Strategic Bridge Between the Two Countries?

    Human Connectivity

    1. Population Linkages: Serves as a living bridge connecting societies and economies.
    2. Academic Contributions: Strengthens educational and research cooperation.
    3. Entrepreneurship: Expands innovation and business networks.

    Soft Power Benefits

    1. Cultural Exchange: Promotes mutual understanding and societal engagement.
    2. Knowledge Transfer: Facilitates technology diffusion and professional collaboration.
    3. Investment Networks: Encourages bilateral investment and business partnerships.

    Strategic Significance

    1. People-to-People Ties: Provides resilience to bilateral relations during political challenges.
    2. Trust Building: Enhances societal confidence and institutional cooperation.

    Why Are Critical Minerals and Clean Energy Emerging as Key Pillars of Cooperation?

    1. Energy Transition
      1. Lithium and Rare Minerals: Supports battery manufacturing and electric mobility.
      2. Uranium Cooperation: Assists India’s long-term energy security strategy.
      3. Clean Technologies: Promotes sustainable industrial development.
    2. Strategic Importance
      1. Supply Security: Ensures reliable access to critical resources.
      2. Industrial Competitiveness: Strengthens emerging technology sectors.
      3. Climate Commitments: Supports net-zero and renewable energy goals.

    How Does the Indo-Pacific Framework Enhance India-Canada Cooperation?

    1. Shared Strategic Vision
      1. Rules-Based Order: Supports international law and freedom of navigation.
      2. Regional Stability: Promotes peace and security in the Indo-Pacific.
      3. Economic Connectivity: Facilitates resilient trade and investment networks.
    2. Emerging Areas
      1. Artificial Intelligence: Expands technology cooperation.
      2. Cybersecurity: Enhances digital resilience.
      3. Maritime Security: Supports secure sea lanes and trade routes.
      4. Supply Chains: Reduces vulnerabilities in strategic sectors.
    3. Geopolitical Relevance
      1. Middle Power Cooperation: Demonstrates collaboration among democratic powers.
      2. Regional Balancing: Contributes to stability amidst strategic competition.

    What Challenges Could Limit the Full Potential of the Partnership?

    1. Political Challenges
      1. Diplomatic Trust Deficit: Requires sustained engagement and confidence-building.
      2. Domestic Political Sensitivities: Can influence bilateral decision-making.
    2. Economic Challenges
      1. Delayed Trade Negotiations: Slows market integration.
      2. Regulatory Differences: Creates barriers for investors and businesses.
    3. Strategic Challenges
      1. Geopolitical Divergences: May occasionally affect policy alignment.
      2. Competing Priorities: Can reduce momentum in bilateral initiatives.

    Conclusion

    India and Canada possess strong economic complementarities, democratic values, technological capabilities, and people-to-people connections. The renewed effort to revive CEPA, deepen critical mineral cooperation, expand investment flows, and strengthen Indo-Pacific engagement reflects a pragmatic recognition of mutual interests. Sustained trust-building and institutional cooperation can transform the relationship into a major strategic and economic partnership of the coming decade.

  • Religion and tribal identity: Why ‘delisting’ debate refuses to die down

    Why in the News?

    A major debate has been triggered following a large mobilisation of tribal organisations demanding the delisting of Scheduled Tribes who have converted to Christianity or Islam from the Scheduled Tribe category. The demand seeks to withdraw reservation benefits and other constitutional safeguards currently available to converted tribal communities.

    What is at Stake in the Delisting Debate?

    1. Educational Reservation: Scheduled Tribes receive 7.5% reservation in Central Educational Institutions, including IITs, NITs, Central Universities and other publicly funded institutions. They are also eligible for Pre-Matric Scholarships, Post-Matric Scholarships, National Fellowships and Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRSs).
    2. Public Employment: Scheduled Tribes receive 7.5% reservation in Central Government recruitment under Articles 16(4), 16(4A) and 335, ensuring representation in public services.
    3. Political Representation: Scheduled Tribes enjoy reserved representation under Article 330 (Lok Sabha) and Article 332 (State Legislative Assemblies). Reservation is also provided in local self-government institutions under Articles 243D and 243T.
    4. Constitutional Safeguards: Scheduled Tribes receive special protection under Article 46 (promotion of educational and economic interests), Article 244 (administration of Scheduled Areas), the Fifth Schedule (Scheduled Areas in mainland India), the Sixth Schedule (Autonomous District Councils in the Northeast) and Article 338A (National Commission for Scheduled Tribes).
    5. Protective Legislation: Scheduled Tribes are protected under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, which criminalises caste- and tribe-based discrimination, violence and social exclusion.
    6. Forest and Community Rights: Scheduled Tribes enjoy rights under the Forest Rights Act, 2006, including Individual Forest Rights (IFR), Community Forest Resource Rights (CFRR) and rights over minor forest produce. Additional protections are available through the PESA Act, 1996, which empowers Gram Sabhas in Scheduled Areas.
    7. Land and Resource Protection: Many Fifth Schedule states impose restrictions on transfer of tribal land to non-tribals, protecting tribal communities from land alienation and displacement.
    8. Targeted Welfare Funding: Scheduled Tribes benefit from the Development Action Plan for Scheduled Tribes (DAPST), under which Union Ministries earmark funds specifically for tribal welfare and development.
    9. Demographic Significance: Scheduled Tribes constitute 8.6% of India’s population (Census 2011), amounting to over 10.45 crore people, making any proposed change in eligibility a matter of national significance.

    Why has the demand for delisting re-emerged in contemporary tribal politics?

    1. Reservation Benefits: Seeks exclusion of converted tribals from reservations, political representation and welfare schemes available to Scheduled Tribes.
    2. Identity Assertion: Strengthens demands for preservation of indigenous tribal faiths, customs and cultural practices.
    3. Sarna Recognition: Revives calls for separate recognition of Sarna and other tribal religions in Census enumeration.
    4. Cultural Preservation: Raises concerns regarding the perceived erosion of traditional tribal institutions and belief systems.
    5. Policy Reorientation: Attempts to redefine the relationship between constitutional protections and tribal identity.

    Is tribal identity a religious identity or an ethnic-cultural identity?

    1. Ethnic Foundations: Tribal identity originates from ancestry, kinship structures, customary practices and historical experiences.
    2. Community Membership: Continues through clan relationships, village institutions and traditional governance systems irrespective of religion.
    3. Cultural Continuity: Preserves festivals, customs, oral traditions and collective memory across generations.
    4. Constitutional Recognition: Derives from socio-historical disadvantage rather than religious affiliation.
    5. Indigenous Worldview: Reflects unique relationships with land, forests, nature and community life.

    Why does the Constitution treat Scheduled Tribes differently from Scheduled Castes?

    1. Article 342 Framework: Recognises Scheduled Tribes on the basis of community characteristics rather than religious identity.
    2. Religion-Neutral Status: Does not prescribe any religious qualification for inclusion or retention of ST status.
    3. Historical Criteria: Considers distinct culture, geographical isolation and socio-economic vulnerability.
    4. Constitutional Distinction: Differs from the Scheduled Caste framework where constitutional orders historically linked eligibility to religion.
    5. Protective Objective: Ensures support for historically marginalised tribal communities irrespective of faith.

    Can religious conversion extinguish tribal identity?

    1. Ancestral Linkages: Retains ethnic origins and kinship networks despite changes in personal faith.
    2. Social Participation: Enables continued participation in community festivals, customs and collective institutions.
    3. Cultural Affiliation: Preserves linguistic and cultural connections within tribal society.
    4. Legal Interpretation: Recognises tribal identity as broader than religious belief alone.
    5. Community Continuity: Maintains membership within the tribal social structure even after conversion.

    What are the major arguments advanced in favour of delisting?

    1. Benefit Rationalisation: Restricts constitutional safeguards to communities perceived as adhering to traditional tribal beliefs.
    2. Cultural Protection: Seeks preservation of indigenous customs, rituals and faith systems.
    3. Reservation Equity: Advocates redistribution of opportunities among non-converted tribal populations.
    4. Identity Conservation: Emphasises continuity of traditional tribal practices.
    5. Institutional Preservation: Supports protection of customary social and cultural institutions.

    What are the principal arguments against delisting?

    1. Constitutional Equality: Protects freedom of conscience and religion under Article 25.
    2. Ethnic Identity: Maintains that tribal status derives from ancestry and community rather than faith.
    3. Continuing Deprivation: Recognises that socio-economic disadvantages persist despite conversion.
    4. Social Cohesion: Prevents fragmentation of tribal communities on religious lines.
    5. Legal Consistency: Preserves the religion-neutral basis of Scheduled Tribe recognition.

    Why is the demand for a separate tribal religious code becoming increasingly important?

    1. Religious Enumeration: Facilitates independent recognition of tribal faith systems in Census records.
    2. Identity Visibility: Strengthens demographic representation of indigenous belief communities.
    3. Cultural Preservation: Protects distinct rituals, sacred groves and traditional worship practices.
    4. Policy Recognition: Supports formulation of targeted cultural preservation measures.
    5. Autonomous Identity: Reinforces the distinctiveness of tribal religions from major organised religions.

    How have courts interpreted the relationship between religion and tribal identity?

    1. Community Principle: Recognises tribal identity as rooted in community membership and ancestry.
    2. Cultural Criterion: Emphasises customs, traditions and collective practices as important determinants of identity.
    3. Religion-Neutral Approach: Distinguishes tribal status from individual religious affiliation.
    4. Continuity Doctrine: Accepts that conversion does not automatically sever tribal identity.
    5. Constitutional Safeguards: Supports continuation of protections based on tribal status rather than faith.

    What does the delisting debate reveal about the tension between cultural assimilation and tribal autonomy

    1. Cultural Autonomy: Protects the right of tribal communities to preserve distinct traditions and identities.
    2. Religious Absorption: Raises concerns regarding incorporation of tribal belief systems into larger religious frameworks.
    3. Symbolic Integration: Involves reinterpretation of tribal deities, practices and cultural symbols.
    4. Identity Preservation: Supports recognition of tribal cultures on their own terms.
    5. Constitutional Pluralism: Reinforces India’s commitment to protecting diverse cultural traditions.

    Conclusion

    The delisting debate highlights the need to balance tribal identity, religious freedom and constitutional equality. As the Xaxa Committee (2014) observed, tribal development must protect both cultural distinctiveness and socio-economic rights.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Given the diversities among tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts should they be considered as a single category?

    Linkage: The question examines the basis of a common constitutional and socio-political identity for Scheduled Tribes despite their immense linguistic, cultural and regional diversity. The article directly relates to the broader question of whether tribal communities should continue to be treated as a single constitutional category despite differences in faith, culture and social practices.

  • Nepal PM’s Remarks on India-Nepal Border Dispute

    Why in the news?

    Nepal Prime Minister Balendra Shah stated in Parliament that Nepal has also “encroached upon Indian territory in many places,” triggering political controversy in Nepal.

    Key Highlights

    • The statement was made while discussing the disputed:
      • Kalapani
      • Lipulekh
      • Limpiyadhura regions.
    • Opposition lawmakers in Nepal demanded clarification and removal of the remarks from parliamentary records.

    India-Nepal Border Dispute

    Main disputed areas:

    • Kalapani: A strategic Himalayan region near the India-Nepal-China trijunction.
    • Lipulekh Pass: Important trade and Kailash Mansarovar pilgrimage route.
    • Limpiyadhura: Claimed by Nepal as part of its territory.

    Background of the Dispute

    • The dispute intensified after:
      • India released a new political map in 2019.
      • Nepal amended its Constitution in 2020 to include the disputed regions in its official map.
    • Nepal bases its claims mainly on interpretations of the: Treaty of Sugauli (1816).

    What is Dasgaja?

    • “Dasgaja” refers to the no man’s land along the India-Nepal border.
    • Nepal’s Foreign Ministry later clarified that the PM’s remarks referred mainly to:
      • Cross border occupation
      • Technical boundary irregularities in riverine areas.

    Treaty of Sugauli (1816)

    • Signed between the East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal.
    • Signed after the Anglo-Nepal War.
    • Importance: Forms the basis of the present India-Nepal boundary disputes.

    India’s Position

    • India maintains that:
      • Lipulekh lies within Indian territory.
      • It is a historic trade and pilgrimage route.
    • India supports resolving disputes through diplomatic dialogue.

    [2020] Consider the following statements:  

    1. The value of Indo-Sri Lanka trade has consistently increased in the last decade 

    2. “Textile and textile articles” constitute an important item of trade between India and Bangladesh. 

    3. In the last five years, Nepal has been the largest trading partner of India in South Asia.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only 

    (b) 2 only 

    (c) 3 only 

    (d) 1, 2 and 3 

  • General N.S. Raja Subramani Assumes Charge as Chief of Defence Staff

    Why in the news?

    General N.S. Raja Subramani assumed charge as India’s third Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) and Secretary, Department of Military Affairs.

    Key Highlights

    • He paid tribute at the National War Memorial after assuming office.
    • A ceremonial Tri Services Guard of Honour was accorded at South Block.
    • He emphasised the “Whole of Nation” approach for strengthening India’s national security.

    What is “JAI”?

    General Subramani highlighted Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s vision of:

    • Jointness
    • Aatma Nirbharta
    • Innovation

    About the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS)

    • CDS is the highest-ranking military officer in India.
    • Acts as the Principal military adviser to the Defence Minister on tri-service matters.
    • Heads: Department of Military Affairs (DMA).
    • Permanent Chairman of Chiefs of Staff Committee

    Department of Military Affairs (DMA)

    • Created in 2019.
    • Functions under Ministry of Defence.
    • Responsible for:
      • Promoting jointness among armed forces
      • Military staffing and training matters
      • Integration of services

    [2024] What are the duties of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) as Head of the Department of Military Affairs?
    1. Permanent Chairman of Chiefs of Staff Committee
    2. Exercise military command over the three Service Chiefs
    3. Principal Military Advisor to Defence Minister on all tri-Service matters
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    [A] 1, 2 and 3

    [B] 1 and 2 only

    [C] 2 and 3 only

    [D] 1 and 3 only

  • [30th May 2026] The Hindu OpED: Different directions: On the Quad, Foreign Ministers’ Meeting 

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2020] Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)’ is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times. Discuss.Linkage: The PYQ is directly linked to the article as it examines the Quad’s evolution from a security-focused platform to cooperation in critical minerals, infrastructure, maritime security, supply chains, and technology.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The recent Quad Foreign Ministers’ Meeting in New Delhi reaffirmed the grouping’s commitment to a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific” (FOIP), maritime security, critical minerals, and resilient supply chains. Yet, the meeting also exposed a deeper contradiction: while the Quad seeks strategic coherence, its members increasingly pursue divergent geopolitical priorities. The issue gains importance as India prepares for a larger Indo-Pacific role while simultaneously managing strategic autonomy amid growing U.S.-China rivalry.

    What is Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)?

    The Quad is a diplomatic partnership between Australia, India, Japan, and the United States committed to supporting a peaceful, stable and prosperous Indo-Pacific that is inclusive and resilient.

    Why was the Quad established, and how has it evolved institutionally?

    1. Origins in Humanitarian Cooperation: The Quad emerged after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, when India, Japan, Australia, and the U.S. coordinated disaster relief operations.
    2. Initial Formation (2007): The grouping formally began at the official level amid concerns over maritime security and regional stability in the Indo-Pacific.
    3. Temporary Dormancy: Strategic hesitation and Chinese opposition weakened momentum after 2007, leading to institutional stagnation.
    4. Revival (2017): Re-emerged amid concerns over China’s assertive maritime posture, militarisation in the South China Sea, and supply chain vulnerabilities.
    5. Leadership Upgrade (2021): Transitioned into leader-level summits, reflecting institutional consolidation and strategic confidence.
    6. India’s Chairmanship (2024-26): India assumed the Quad Chair in 2024 but has faced delays in convening the summit due to diplomatic tensions and scheduling disruptions.

    Why is the Quad increasingly important in the Indo-Pacific strategic architecture?

    1. Maritime Security: Strengthens regional monitoring through the Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) to track illegal maritime activities.
    2. Surveillance Coordination: Expands operational cooperation through the Indo-Pacific Maritime Surveillance Collaboration (IPMSC) and a Quad-at-Sea Ship Observer Mission.
    3. Critical Minerals Cooperation: Reduces excessive dependence on concentrated supply chains, particularly concerning China’s dominance in rare earth processing.
    4. Infrastructure Development: Marks a shift from dialogue to implementation through the first-ever Quad infrastructure project involving port development in Fiji.
    5. Energy Security: Improves resilience against geopolitical disruptions affecting fuel and strategic supply routes.
    6. Rules-Based Order: Reaffirms commitment to Freedom and Openness in the Indo-Pacific (FOIP), sovereignty, territorial integrity, and adherence to international law, especially UNCLOS.

    How do divergent strategic interests constrain the Quad’s effectiveness?

    1. China Perception Gap: India prioritises border security and strategic autonomy, Japan focuses on East China Sea tensions, Australia emphasises economic-security balancing, while the U.S. treats the Quad as a pillar of Indo-Pacific containment.
    2. West Asia Contradictions: Members expressed concern regarding Iranian actions but avoided direct criticism of the U.S.-Israel actions, exposing selective strategic positioning.
    3. Russia Factor: U.S. geopolitical priorities increasingly diverge from India’s long-standing strategic engagement with Russia.
    4. Consultation Deficit: Limited coordination during crises such as the West Asia conflict raises questions regarding the Quad’s effectiveness as a consultative mechanism.
    5. Asymmetric Threat Priorities: Security concerns vary significantly across members, weakening strategic convergence.

    Does U.S. unilateralism weaken the credibility of the Quad?

    1. Policy Inconsistency: Independent U.S. decisions regarding China, Iran, tariffs, sanctions, and security interventions create uncertainty among partners.
    2. Strategic Ambiguity: Simultaneous competition and engagement with China generate mixed signals regarding the Quad’s long-term direction.
    3. Consultative Weakness: Major geopolitical decisions taken without Quad-wide consultation undermine institutional trust.
    4. Regional Perception Challenge: Indo-Pacific countries increasingly assess whether the Quad represents collective regional security or U.S.-led balancing.

    Why are delays in Quad summits raising concerns about institutional relevance?

    1. Pannun-Nijjar Fallout (2024): India-U.S. tensions affected diplomatic momentum and delayed summit scheduling.
    2. Trade and Tariff Frictions (2025): Disagreements over sanctions, trade measures, and Operation Sindoor claims disrupted plans for a Delhi summit.
    3. Leadership Discontinuity: India may transfer the Chair to Australia without hosting a summit, potentially signalling reduced momentum.
    4. Institutional Credibility: Regular summits remain essential for sustaining political commitment and strategic continuity.

    Can the Quad move beyond strategic signalling toward functional cooperation?

    1. Climate Cooperation: Supports resilient infrastructure and climate adaptation in vulnerable Indo-Pacific states.
    2. Health Security: Enhances vaccine partnerships and emergency preparedness frameworks.
    3. Debt and Infrastructure Financing: Provides alternatives to debt-heavy development models in the Indo-Pacific.
    4. Supply Chain Resilience: Diversifies production ecosystems for semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, and strategic minerals.
    5. Technology Partnerships: Facilitates cooperation in critical and emerging technologies.

    What should India’s approach toward the Quad be?

    1. Strategic Autonomy: Maintains engagement without entering formal military alliances.
    2. Issue-Based Cooperation: Prioritises maritime security, supply chains, infrastructure, and technology instead of alliance politics.
    3. Regional Balancing: Ensures Indo-Pacific stability while preserving ties with Russia, West Asia, ASEAN, and the Global South.
    4. Institutional Deepening: Strengthens continuity through regular summits, implementation mechanisms, and operational coordination.

    Conclusion

    The Quad’s challenge lies not in institutional survival but strategic coherence. Maritime cooperation, critical minerals, infrastructure, and technology partnerships continue to provide functional relevance. However, divergent threat perceptions and unilateral geopolitical actions risk weakening collective purpose. Sustained consultation, regular summits, and issue-based cooperation remain essential to ensure that the Quad evolves as a credible Indo-Pacific platform rather than a forum shaped by competing national priorities.

  • NFHS-6 (2023-24)

    Why in the news?

    The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare released the National Family Health Survey-6 (NFHS-6), showing major improvements in maternal health, child nutrition, immunisation, and financial protection.

    About NFHS

    • Conducted by the International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai
    • Covers population, health, nutrition, and family welfare indicators
    • NFHS-6 surveyed about 6.79 lakh households across 715 districts

    Key Findings

    Maternal and Child Health

    • (Hospital) Institutional deliveries increased: 88.6% → 90.6%
    • ANC coverage: 92.6% → 95.9%
    • Four or more ANC visits: 58.5% → 65.2%
    • Skilled birth attendance: 89.4% → 91.3%

    Child Immunisation

    • Full immunisation: 83.8% → 87.1%
    • Over 96% children received at least one vaccine
    • Rotavirus vaccine coverage: 36.4% → 85.4%
    • 95.6% vaccinations delivered through public health facilities

    Nutrition Indicators

    • Stunting reduced: 35.5% → 29.3%
    • Severe wasting reduced: 7.7% → 5.2%
    • Breastfeeding within one hour of birth: 41.8% → 50.1%

    Family Planning

    • Total Fertility Rate (TFR): 2.0
    • Contraceptive prevalence: 66.7% → 69.1%

    Health Insurance Coverage

    • Household coverage under health insurance schemes: 41.0% → 60.2%
    • Reflects expansion of Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY)

    Women’s Empowerment

    • Women using the internet: 33.3% → 64.3%
    • Women operating their own bank accounts: 78.6% → 89.0%
    • Women owning mobile phones: 53.9% → 63.6%

    [2022] The total fertility rate in an economy is defined as:

    [A] the number of children born per 1000 people in the population in a year.

    [B] the number of children born to a couple in their lifetime in a given population.

    [C] the birth rate minus death rate.

    [D] the average number of live births a woman would have by the end of her child-bearing age.

  • [29th May 2026] The Hindu OpED: Will increasing the strength of the SC solve the pendency problem

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2024] Explain the reasons for the growth of Public Interest Litigation in India. As a result of it, has the Indian Supreme Court emerged as the world’s most powerful judiciaryLinkage: The PYQ examines the expanding role and jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, which lies at the core of the present debate on pendency and judicial burden.The article discusses judicial reforms and institutional capacity of the Supreme Court. Efficient justice delivery is essential for preserving judicial independence and constitutional governance.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The Union government has recently increased the sanctioned strength of the Supreme Court from 34 to 38 judges, reviving an old debate on judicial reforms: Can more judges solve India’s mounting judicial pendency? The issue has direct relevance for judicial reforms, separation of powers, access to justice, and constitutional governance in India.

    What is the Constitutional Provision Governing the Number of Supreme Court Judges?

    1. Article 124(1): Establishes the Supreme Court and provides for a Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other judges.
    2. Parliamentary Power: The Constitution does not fix a permanent number of judges. It authorises Parliament to determine the number of judges by law.
    3. Flexible Institutional Design: Enables periodic expansion of judicial strength based on rising caseload, pendency, and administrative requirements.

    How has the Number of Supreme Court Judges Increased?

    1. Ordinary Legislation: Increase in judicial strength requires amendment of the Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Act, 1956.
    2. No Constitutional Amendment Required: Since Article 124 empowers Parliament, increase occurs through ordinary parliamentary legislation, not a constitutional amendment under Article 368.
    3. Recent Change (2025): Parliament passed the Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Bill, 2025, increasing sanctioned strength from 34 to 38 judges.
    4. Ordinance Route: The President promulgated an ordinance under Article 123 before Parliament formally completed the process, despite Parliament expected to convene shortly.

    How Has the Supreme Court’s Strength Increased Over Time?

    YearStrength of SC Judges
    19508 (including CJI)
    195611
    196014
    197718
    198626
    200931
    201934
    202538

    What Does This Trend Indicate?

    1. Rising Caseload: Expansion reflects increasing litigation and constitutional responsibilities.
    2. Persistent Pendency: Repeated increases have not prevented rising backlog, indicating structural inefficiencies beyond numerical shortage.
    3. Shift in Institutional Role: Expansion coincides with the Supreme Court increasingly functioning as a general appellate court, rather than primarily a constitutional court.

    Can Increasing Judicial Strength Alone Reduce Pendency in the Supreme Court?

    1. Judicial Capacity: Increasing sanctioned strength from 34 to 38 judges enhances disposal capacity and may reduce waiting time for hearings.
    2. Limited Impact: Pendency of nearly 94,000 cases suggests backlog is structural rather than merely numerical.
    3. Historical Continuity: Successive governments have periodically increased judicial strength, yet pendency continues to rise.
    4. Institutional Limitation: More judges do not automatically improve efficiency unless accompanied by procedural reforms.
    5. Concerns Over Ordinance Route: The government introduced the increase through an ordinance, despite Parliament being expected to convene soon, raising concerns about legislative bypass.

    Has the Supreme Court Drifted from Its Intended Constitutional Role?

    1. Constitutional Design: The Supreme Court was envisioned primarily as a constitutional court, dealing with substantial constitutional interpretation.
    2. Article 136 Expansion: The Court’s extraordinary power under Article 136 (Special Leave Petition) has expanded its jurisdiction significantly.
    3. Routine Appeals: A substantial share of the Court’s docket is now occupied by SLPs, converting the Court into a de facto regular appellate court.
    4. Judicial Observation (2016): A Constitution Bench refused to restrict Article 136, observing that no effort should be made to reduce the Court’s powers.
    5. Consequences: Excessive appellate workload diverts attention from constitutional matters of national significance.

    Do Special Leave Petitions (SLPs) Contribute to Judicial Backlog?

    1. Extraordinary Remedy: SLPs were designed as exceptional remedies under Article 136 for rare cases involving grave injustice.
    2. Judicial Overreach of Scope: SLPs now dominate a substantial portion of Supreme Court litigation.
    3. Absence of Guidelines: Lack of strict admission standards has encouraged indiscriminate filing.
    4. Case Example: Vijaya Bank v. Prashant B. Narnaware: A contractual employment dispute reached the Supreme Court despite involving issues more suited for lower courts.
    5. Constitutional Concern: Excessive admission of routine matters dilutes the Court’s constitutional focus.

    Does Government Litigation Worsen Judicial Pendency?

    1. Largest Litigant: Governments remain among the largest litigants in Indian courts.
    2. National Litigation Policy Failure: The proposed National Litigation Policy (NLP) aimed to reduce avoidable government litigation but was never effectively implemented.
    3. Routine Appeals Culture: Government departments frequently pursue appeals even in settled legal matters.
    4. Administrative Inconsistency: Frequent changes in legal officers produce contradictory litigation strategies.
    5. Institutional Burden: Excessive state appeals consume judicial time and prolong case disposal.
    6. Illustration: Cases often remain pending for years before reaching the Supreme Court because High Courts do not conclusively settle disputes.

    Will More Benches Improve Consistency or Create Conflicting Judgments?

    1. Expanded Bench Strength: More judges imply greater number of division benches.
    2. Potential Benefit: Greater benches may increase disposal rates and reduce waiting time.
    3. Risk of Fragmentation: Larger bench numbers may generate inconsistent judicial interpretations.
    4. Polyvocality Challenge: Different benches may reach different conclusions on similar legal principles.
    5. Need for Coordination: Greater reference to larger Constitution Benches becomes essential for doctrinal consistency.

    Can Institutional Reforms Address Pendency More Effectively Than Numerical Expansion?

    1. Filtering Mechanism: Strengthens scrutiny of frivolous litigation, particularly under Article 136.
    2. Case Prioritisation: Ensures only cases involving substantial constitutional questions reach the Supreme Court.
    3. Written Submissions: Reduces prolonged oral arguments and judicial time consumption.
    4. Bench Management: Facilitates better coordination among benches to reduce conflicting rulings.
    5. High Court Empowerment: Encourages High Courts to decisively settle disputes rather than passing litigation upward.
    6. Case Illustration: State of Uttaranchal v. Balwant Singh Chaufal (2010): Supreme Court stressed that Public Interest Litigation (PIL) must serve genuine public causes and not personal interests.

    Can Judicial Appointments Improve Gender Representation?

    1. New Opportunity: Four additional judicial positions create scope for increasing women’s representation.
    2. Gender Gap: High Courts continue to have relatively low numbers of senior women judges.
    3. Transparency Need: Judicial appointments require greater openness and diversity considerations.
    4. Convention Bias: Seniority norms have often disadvantaged women in elevation to higher courts.

    Conclusion

    Increasing the sanctioned strength of the Supreme Court from 34 to 38 judges may improve disposal rates and reduce immediate workload pressures, but pendency is fundamentally a structural and institutional challenge rather than a purely numerical one. Sustainable reform requires restoring the Court’s constitutional role through stricter filtering of Special Leave Petitions (SLPs), reducing excessive government litigation, strengthening High Courts, improving case management, and ensuring doctrinal consistency. Judicial expansion can facilitate faster justice only when accompanied by systemic reforms that enhance efficiency, coherence, and access to justice.

  • Why SC online gaming tax verdict could be a final death blow to sector

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court recently upheld the constitutional validity of the government’s retrospective 28% GST levy on online real-money gaming, reviving tax demands of nearly ₹2.5 lakh crore against gaming companies, fantasy sports platforms, and casinos. The ruling is significant because it overturns relief granted by the Karnataka High Court .

    Understanding Online Gaming in India: What is Being Regulated?

    1. Online gaming refers to digital games played over the internet through mobile applications, websites, or gaming platforms.
    2. In India, the sector includes real-money gaming, fantasy sports, skill-based games (rummy, poker), casino-style betting, and casual entertainment gaming. 
    3. The regulatory challenge arises because gaming falls at the intersection of technology, taxation, public order, consumer protection, and gambling laws, with different legal treatment depending on the nature of the game.

    How is online gaming regulated in India?

    1. Constitutional Position: Betting and gambling fall under the State List (Entry 34, List II, Seventh Schedule), allowing states to enact their own laws. This has created a fragmented regulatory landscape.
    2. Central Regulation: The Union government regulates aspects relating to intermediary liability, digital platforms, taxation, cybersecurity, money laundering, and online content.
    3. IT Rules Framework: The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, amended in 2023, introduced provisions for regulation of online real-money games, due diligence by intermediaries, and verification mechanisms.
    4. State-Level Variation: States adopt differing approaches:
      1. Permissive Approach: States such as Sikkim and Nagaland license certain online skill games.
      2. Restrictive Approach: States such as Tamil Nadu and Telangana imposed restrictions on some online money games citing addiction and public welfare concerns.
    5. Tax Regulation: Since October 2023, online gaming, casinos, and horse racing attract 28% GST on the full face value of bets/deposits, rather than only platform commissions.

    What is the difference between a ‘Game of Skill’ and a ‘Game of Chance’?

    Game of Skill

    1. A game in which success predominantly depends upon a player’s knowledge, training, strategy, judgment, or expertise, even if some chance element exists.
    2. Examples:
      1. Rummy: Recognised by courts as substantially skill-based.
      2. Fantasy Sports (Dream11): Judicial rulings have treated team selection requiring statistical judgment as skill-oriented.
      3. Chess, Bridge, E-sports: Depend primarily on cognitive ability and strategy.
      4. Judicial Position: Courts have held that a game remains one of skill if skill predominates over chance.

    Game of Chance

    1. A game in which outcomes depend predominantly on luck, randomness, or uncertain events, with limited influence of player expertise.
    2. Examples:
      1. Roulette
      2. Slot machines
      3. Lottery
      4. Casino gambling
    3. These activities are generally treated as betting or gambling and face stricter regulation.

    Why does the skill-versus-chance distinction matter?

    1. Legal Treatment: Games of skill generally receive greater constitutional protection under Article 19(1)(g) (right to trade/business), whereas gambling may face prohibition.
    2. Taxation: The GST dispute emerged because gaming firms argued that skill-based games should be taxed on Gross Gaming Revenue (GGR) rather than total player deposits.
    3. State Regulation: Several states permit skill games while prohibiting gambling and betting.
    4. Consumer Welfare: Governments increasingly view even skill-based money gaming through a public health lens due to addiction concerns.

    Why has the Supreme Court verdict become a watershed moment for India’s online gaming sector?

    1. Retrospective Tax Validation: Upholds the constitutional validity of the 28% GST levy retrospectively, reviving tax notices worth approximately ₹2.5 lakh crore against gaming firms, fantasy sports companies, and casinos.
    2. Judicial Finality: Settles a prolonged legal dispute by dismissing petitions filed by gaming companies challenging GST demands and retrospective tax notices.
    3. Reversal of Earlier Relief: Overturns relief granted by the Karnataka High Court to Gameskraft, which had challenged a ₹21,000 crore GST notice.
    4. Massive Fiscal Exposure: Creates unprecedented liabilities for firms such as Dream11, which reportedly faced notices of around ₹40,000 crore, and Delta Corp, which received notices totalling ₹23,204 crore.

    How did the dispute over GST liability on online gaming emerge?

    1. Taxation Ambiguity: Emerged from disagreement over whether GST should apply only on platform fees/commissions (Gross Gaming Revenue-GGR) or on the full value of deposits/bets placed by users.
    2. Industry Position: Argued that taxation should apply prospectively from 1 October 2023, following GST Council amendments.
    3. Government Position: Treated real-money gaming involving uncertain outcomes as betting and gambling, irrespective of skill elements.
    4. Skill vs Chance Debate: The industry maintained that games such as fantasy sports and rummy involve skill and should be taxed differently from gambling.
    5. Supreme Court Position: Accepted the government’s interpretation by treating online money gaming involving uncertain outcomes as taxable similarly to betting activities.

    Why is taxation on the ‘full face value’ of bets controversial?

    1. Commercial Unsustainability: Imposes GST on the entire deposited amount rather than platform earnings, substantially increasing tax liability.
    2. Revenue Mismatch: Creates tax demands many times higher than cumulative revenues generated by companies.
    3. Retrospective Burden: Applies liabilities to past operations, creating sudden and severe liquidity pressures.
    4. Consumer Pricing Constraints: Restricts firms’ ability to transfer increased tax burdens to users due to market competition and affordability concerns.
    5. Business Viability Risk: Forces firms to reconsider business models, downsize operations, or shift to alternative sectors.
    6. Illustration: A platform earning only a small commission on player deposits may still face taxation on the total deposited amount, sharply inflating liabilities.

    Does the verdict strengthen fiscal governance or undermine ease of doing business?

    1. Tax Certainty: Strengthens clarity by resolving prolonged legal ambiguity regarding GST treatment.
    2. Revenue Protection: Enhances government capacity to prevent tax avoidance and regulatory arbitrage.
    3. Consumer Protection: Aligns with state concerns regarding gambling addiction and financial vulnerability among youth.
    4. Retrospective Taxation Concerns: Raises questions regarding predictability of taxation, a core element of investment confidence.
    5. Ease of Doing Business: Creates apprehensions regarding sudden regulatory shifts affecting emerging digital sectors.
    6. Regulatory Signalling: Indicates stronger state oversight over digital platforms operating in legally grey areas.

    How has India’s regulatory approach towards online gaming evolved?

    1. Tax Tightening: GST Council introduced 28% GST on online gaming based on the face value of bets.
    2. Security Concerns: Authorities flagged concerns relating to digital wallets, cryptocurrency-based transfers, illicit fund movement, and money laundering.
    3. National Security Risks: Identified gaming platforms as potential communication channels for organised criminal and extremist activities.
    4. Legal Restrictions: The Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming (PROG) Act, 2025 introduced strict restrictions on online money gaming platforms.
    5. Financial Restrictions: Prohibits banks and financial institutions from facilitating transactions linked to prohibited platforms.
    6. Penal Consequences: Provides imprisonment and financial penalties for operators, promoters, and facilitators of prohibited gaming activities.

    Can India balance innovation in digital gaming with regulatory safeguards?

    1. Regulatory Clarity: Requires a transparent legal distinction between games of skill and games of chance.
    2. Consumer Safeguards: Ensures age verification, spending limits, addiction prevention, and grievance redressal.
    3. Proportionate Taxation: Supports sustainable taxation aligned with actual revenue generation.
    4. Technology Oversight: Strengthens anti-money laundering (AML) and cybersecurity frameworks.
    5. Economic Potential: Recognises gaming as part of India’s digital economy, employment generation, and technology ecosystem.
    6. Federal Coordination: Requires harmonisation between central taxation policies and state gambling laws.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court verdict represents more than a taxation dispute; it signals a decisive shift in India’s governance of emerging digital sectors. While the judgment strengthens regulatory clarity and fiscal oversight, the retrospective nature and scale of tax liabilities raise concerns regarding investment certainty and innovation. India’s challenge lies in designing a framework that simultaneously ensures consumer protection, revenue integrity, and sustainable growth of legitimate digital enterprises.

  • A revival of sedition tied to consent 

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court on May 21, 2026, clarified that courts may resume proceedings in pending sedition cases under Section 124A of the IPC if the accused voluntarily consent, partially relaxing the 2022 stay order. The development has revived debate over free speech and misuse of sedition while its constitutional validity remains pending before the Court.

    What is Sedition?

    Sedition under Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860 historically criminalised acts bringing “hatred, contempt or disaffection” against the government established by law. Although Section 124A stands repealed with the enforcement of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023, a comparable provision now exists under Section 152 of the BNS, titled “Acts Endangering Sovereignty, Unity and Integrity of India.” The Supreme Court’s recent clarification primarily concerns pending Section 124A IPC cases, while the constitutional debate has now expanded to include Section 152 of the BNS.

    FeatureSection 124A IPCSection 152 BNS
    LawIndian Penal Code, 1860Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023
    Offence NameSeditionActs Endangering Sovereignty, Unity and Integrity of India
    FocusHatred/disaffection against governmentSecession, armed rebellion, separatism, subversive activities
    TerminologyExplicitly used term “sedition”Removes word “sedition”
    PunishmentLife imprisonment or up to 3 years + fineLife imprisonment or up to 7 years + fine
    CriticismMisuse against dissentAlleged “repackaged sedition” with broader scope

    Why has sedition remained controversial since colonial times?

    1. Colonial Origins: Sedition traces back to the Statute of Westminster, 1275, and later became part of British colonial criminal law.
    2. Colonial Instrument: Used by British authorities against Indian nationalists including Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi.
    3. Nehru’s Criticism: Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru described sedition in Parliament (1951) as “highly objectionable and obnoxious.”
    4. Democratic Contradiction: Critics argue sedition criminalises legitimate criticism of government.
    5. Recent Misuse Example: A former independent MP and her husband reportedly faced sedition charges after allegedly threatening to recite the Hanuman Chalisa outside a former Maharashtra Chief Minister’s residence.

    How has the Supreme Court’s May 21 clarification altered the status of sedition proceedings?

    1. Judicial Clarification: Permits courts to continue trials, appeals, and proceedings under Section 124A if the accused person voluntarily consents.
    2. Partial Revival: Modifies the effective pause imposed by the Supreme Court’s May 2022 interim order, which had directed governments to refrain from registering fresh FIRs and coercive action under sedition.
    3. Case Illustration: The clarification emerged in State of Madhya Pradesh v. Kanhaiya Lal, where accused persons convicted under sedition sought appeal proceedings.
    4. Procedural Shift: Allows High Courts and lower courts to proceed selectively rather than maintaining a blanket suspension.

    Why had sedition proceedings been effectively paused since 2022?

    1. Constitutional Challenge: Multiple petitions led by S.G. Vombatkere v. Union of India questioned Section 124A for violating fundamental rights, especially free speech under Article 19(1)(a).
    2. Executive Reconsideration: The Union Government informed the Supreme Court in 2022 that it intended to re-examine the sedition provision.
    3. Interim Judicial Protection: The Court expected governments not to register new FIRs, continue investigations, or take coercive action during reconsideration.
    4. Protection Against Misuse: Intended to prevent arbitrary criminalisation of speech while constitutional validity remained unresolved.

    How does a consent-based revival create unequal legal consequences?

    1. Legal Disparity: Creates different legal outcomes between accused persons who consent to proceedings and those who refuse due to fear of imprisonment.
    2. Coercive Choice: Places vulnerable accused persons between two difficult outcomes:
      1. Consent to trial: Risk imprisonment under a constitutionally contested law.
      2. Refusal to consent: Remain indefinitely trapped in legal limbo.
    3. Unequal Burden: Individuals seeking quick closure may voluntarily proceed despite uncertainty, whereas others continue facing unresolved proceedings.
    4. Judicial Inconsistency: Produces uneven implementation of Section 124A across courts and states.

    Why is prolonged delay in deciding sedition’s constitutionality problematic?

    1. Rule of Law Concerns: Citizens remain subject to prosecution under a law whose constitutional status remains undecided.
    2. Violation of Personal Liberty: Prolonged uncertainty potentially affects Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty).
    3. Administrative Burden: Courts and police continue managing pending cases without legal clarity.
    4. Judicial Delay: The S.G. Vombatkere petitions have remained unresolved for nearly four years despite the law’s immense constitutional significance.
    5. Constitutional Ambiguity: Creates uncertainty regarding permissible limits of dissent and criticism.

    What constitutional safeguards currently govern sedition law?

    1. Kedar Nath Singh v. State of Bihar (1962): Supreme Court upheld sedition but restricted it only to speech involving incitement to violence or public disorder.
    2. Protection of Criticism: Mere criticism of government policies, measures, or actions does not amount to sedition.
    3. Article 19(2): Permits reasonable restrictions on free speech in interests of sovereignty, integrity, and public order.
    4. Article 21 Linkage: Excessive restrictions on speech may indirectly affect liberty and dignity.
    5. Judicial Balancing: Courts attempt to reconcile national security with democratic dissent.

    Should sedition continue in a constitutional democracy?

    Arguments Supporting Retention

    1. National Security: Ensures legal protection against secessionism, violent insurgency, and anti-state mobilisation.
    2. Public Order: Enables state intervention against speech directly inciting violence.
    3. Sovereignty Protection: Addresses organised attempts to destabilise constitutional authority.

    Arguments Supporting Repeal

    1. Chilling Effect: Discourages legitimate criticism and democratic dissent.
    2. Colonial Legacy: Retains a law originally designed to suppress anti-colonial voices.
    3. Potential Misuse: Broad interpretation enables politically motivated prosecutions.
    4. Redundancy: Provisions relating to terrorism, unlawful activity, criminal conspiracy, and incitement to violence already exist.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court’s clarification on resuming pending Section 124A IPC (sedition) proceedings for consenting accused has reopened concerns over free speech, legal certainty, and constitutional fairness. A democratic constitutional order requires that restrictions on dissent remain narrowly defined, judicially consistent, and proportionate, making an early adjudication on the validity of Section 124A IPC and Section 152 of the BNS, 2023 essential to balance national security with civil liberties.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it also cover hate speech? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

    Linkage: This PYQ examines freedom of speech and reasonable restrictions under Article 19, central to the sedition debate. Sedition similarly concerns limits on speech vis-à-vis public order, sovereignty, and democratic dissent.

  • NeSDA 2025 Portal

    Why in the news?

    The Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) launched the National e-Governance Service Delivery Assessment (NeSDA) 2025 Portal to strengthen digital governance and assess online public service delivery across India.

    What is NeSDA?

    NeSDA (National e-Governance Service Delivery Assessment) is:

    • A biennial assessment framework
    • Developed by DARPG
    • Based on the UN Online Service Index (OSI)
    • Customized for India’s federal structure

    Note: The UN Online Service Index (OSI) is a key component of the UN E-Government Development Index (EGDI) published by the United Nations. It measures the quality and availability of digital government services provided by countries through online platforms.

    Objective

    To assess:

    • Availability
    • Accessibility
    • Quality
    • Maturity of online government services

    Across:

    • States
    • Union Territories
    • Selected Central Ministries

    Key Features of NeSDA 2025

    Portal Categories

    • Government Portals
    • Service Delivery Portals

    Sectors Covered

    • Finance, Education, Labour & Employment, Agriculture, Health, Transport, Tourism, Public Grievance, Environment, Local Governance, and Corporate Affairs

    [2022] Consider the following:
    1. Aarogya Setu
    2. COWIN
    3. DigiLocker
    4. DIKSHA
    Which of the above are built on to open-source digital platforms?

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 2, 3 and 4 only

    [C] 1, 3 and 4 only

    [D] 1, 2, 3 and 4