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  • Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at the World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)?

    Green Grid Initiative, launched by India and UK, seeks to establish an inter-connected global renewable power grid, under the principle of “one sun, one world, one grid.”

    Purpose of Green Grid Initiative

    It is based on three thematic pillars:

    Finance – Mobilise investment to double grid funding by 2030.

    Planning, Permits & Operation – Improve long-term planning and speed up approvals for faster grid development.

    Supply Chains – Strengthen manufacturing and match demand with supply of grid components.

    “The Sun Never Sets” Vision – Ensure continuous solar availability globally by connecting regions in different time zones.

    Build international collaboration for the effective use of renewable energy.

    Global Interconnected Grid to accelerate the transition to renewable energy.

    Energy Sharing Mechanism – Enable countries with low sunlight to access power from regions with surplus solar energy.

    Ensuring energy equity and access: enabling mini-grids and off-grid communities

    Accelerate the shift away from fossil fuels by enhancing deployment of clean energy

    History of Green Grid Initiative

    The concept of OSOWOG was first introduced by India’s Prime Minister at the first Assembly of ISA in October 2018.

    It was formally launched by India and UK in COP26

    By building a framework for international cooperation, it strengthens the global pathway towards decarbonisation and energy security by 2030, making it a pivotal instrument for achieving SDG-7 and supporting global climate action.

  • Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards?

    According to the World Air Quality Report 2024 by IQAir, India is the 5th most polluted country, with an average PM2.5 level of 50.6 µg/m³, 10 times the WHO safe limit (5 µg/m³).

    Key Points of the Revised WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs)

    The 2021 AQGs set significantly lower recommended levels for major pollutants to better protect health.

    Coverage of Six Key Pollutants – PM2.5, PM10, ozone (O₃), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and carbon monoxide (CO).

    Include stepwise interim targets to help countries progressively reduce pollution. Eg- Short-term and long-term average recommendations for NO₂ and CO

    Provide guidance on specific particle types (black carbon, ultrafine particles)

    Differences from the 2005 Update

    More Stringent Pollutant Thresholds –

    The annual PM2.5 guideline was halved, from 10 µg/m³ (2005) to 5 µg/m³ (2021)

    PM10 and NO₂ limits are also significantly reduced.

    Expanded Pollutant Coverage – include updated short-term exposure metrics and carbon monoxide.

    Stronger Scientific Basis – incorporate global epidemiological data and new evidence on low-level health effects, unlike the more limited evidence base of 2005.

    New emphasis on interim milestone targets for progressive improvement, unlike the broader recommendations in 2005.

    Changes Required in India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

    Revise Reduction Targets to align with WHO’s stricter limits rather than the current 20-40% reduction targets.

    Broaden the air quality monitoring network to include more cities, rural zones, and all six pollutants to match WHO standards.

    Improve enforcement and adopt binding air quality targets rather than advisory ones

    Implement an airshed-based approach that addresses transport, industry, biomass burning and regional pollution transport collaboratively.

    Integrate health impact data and public communication into NCAP, promoting behaviour change

    Strengthening NCAP to meet WHO AQGs supports India’s Panchamrit climate goals, and long-term sustainable development objectives.

  • Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades

    Vulnerability of India to Earthquake-Related Hazards

    Active Plate Tectonics – High seismicity in the Himalayan belt, North-East India, Kutch region, and Andaman-Nicobar Islands.

    Wide Seismic Zonation

    Zone V (Very High Risk) – Himalayan states, Kutch, Andaman & Nicobar.

    Zone IV – Delhi, Bihar, parts of J&K and NE India.

    Major cities such as Delhi, Guwahati, Srinagar, Imphal lie in high-risk zones.

    Weak enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes (BIS).

    Rapid and Unplanned Urbanisation without seismic safety.

    Secondary and Cascading Hazards – Landslides, liquefaction, fires, dam failure, and infrastructure collapse.

    Vulnerability of critical infrastructure – Disruption of transport, power, water, and communication networks.

    Examples of Major Earthquake Disasters in India (Last Three Decades)

    Latur Earthquake, Maharashtra (1993)

    Magnitude – ~6.3

    Intraplate earthquake caused by reactivation of ancient fault lines in the Deccan Plateau

    Over 9,000 deaths.

    Bhuj Earthquake, Gujarat (2001)

    Magnitude – 7.7

    Intraplate fault movement due to stress transmitted from the Indian Plate-Eurasian Plate collision

    Around 13,800 deaths and massive infrastructure loss.

    Kashmir Earthquake (2005)

    Magnitude – 7.6

    Thrust faulting due to ongoing collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate

    Extensive landslides and isolation of remote villages.

    Sikkim Earthquake (2011)

    Magnitude – 6.9

    Active tectonics of the Himalayan collision zone

    Triggered widespread landslides.

    Damage to roads, bridges, and hydropower projects.

    Hazard zonation mapping, disaster resilient infrastructure and institutional strengthening for quick response and recovery is essential to achieve Sendai targets on disaster risk reduction.

  • Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy.

    Landslides are the downhill movement of rock, debris or earth due to slope failure, triggered by natural or anthropogenic factors.

    Causes of Landslides

    Natural Causes

    Intense or Prolonged Rainfall leads to liquefaction – Eg- 2018 Kerala floods triggered major landslides in Idukki and Wayanad.

    Hydrological Factors: Water seepage through porous materials raises pore pressure and weakens the slope.

    Earthquakes – Seismic shaking destabilises slopes.

    Weathering & Erosion

    Physical and chemical weathering reduce slope strength

    River undercutting erodes base material.

    Snowmelt – Eg- Landslides linked to glacial retreat in Chamoli (Uttarakhand).

    Volcanic Activity – Though rare in India, globally volcanic regions face debris flows and lahars.

    Anthropogenic Causes

    Unregulated Construction– Eg- Frequent landslides along Char Dham highway in Uttarakhand.

    Deforestation – Reduces root binding capacity and slope cohesion. Eg- Western Ghats tea and cardamom plantations.

    Mining & Quarrying Activities– Eg- Quarry-linked landslides in Kerala’s Idukki district.

    Poor Drainage –Blocked drains, leaking pipelines, and slope saturation trigger failures.

    Unplanned Urbanisation – Unscientific hill-cutting and unsustainable tourist influx. Eg- Joshimath Crisis in Uttarakhand

    Effects of Landslides

    Loss of Life and Injury – Eg- 2024 Wayanad landslide killed 250+ people and injured 400

    Damage to critical Infrastructure– Eg- Frequent closure of NH-44 in J&K and HP.

    Economic Losses – 1% to 2% of the Gross National Product (GSI)

    River Blockage due to debris creates temporary dams and flash floods. Eg- 2021 Rishiganga disaster.

    Environmental Degradation – Loss of forests, soil fertility, biodiversity, and increased erosion.

    Disaster induced displacement – as per Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), India recorded 5.4 million displacements in 2024 due to disasters Eg- Joshimath crisis (2023).

    Components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy (NLRMS)

    Landslide Hazard Zonation Mapping using GIS, remote sensing, LiDAR.

    At macro scale (1:50,000 / 25,000)

    At meso level (1:10,000)

    Developing landslide monitoring & early warning systems – Eg- use of Rainfall thresholds, automated sensors, Doppler radar support etc

    Awareness generation and capacity building of local communities in landslide safety and mitigation.

    Land use regulation – Eg- Restricting construction in high-risk slopes.

    Creation of Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for Landslide Management

    Mitigation Measures –

    Engineering solutions – Retaining walls, slope drainage, rock bolting, geo-textiles,

    Nature based solutions – Afforestation in himalaya

    Establishment of a National Landslide Inventory for modelling and planning.

    Response & Relief – SOPs for search and rescue, emergency shelters.

    Institutional Mechanism & Coordination – Defining roles of NDMA, GSI, MoRTH, state DMAs and local bodies.

    Research & Development – Geotechnical studies, rainfall-landslide correlations.

    To prevent a catastrophe like the Wayanad Landslide of 2024, engineering as well as nature-based solutions along with early warning systems, and effective land use practices are essential.

  • What are the salient features of the National Food Security Act, 2013? How has the Food Security Bill helped in eliminating hunger and malnutrition in India?

    NFSA marks a paradigm shift in the approach to food security from welfare to rights based approach. It is the world’s largest food transfer programme and social safety net, accounting for around 50% of India’s overall social assistance budget.

    Salient Features of the National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013

    Legal entitlement to food for 75% of rural and 50% of urban population81 crore people).

    Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) supplies 5 kg of foodgrains per person per month at highly subsidized prices:

    Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households receive 35 kg per family per month.

    Life-cycle approach:

    Pregnant & lactating women: Free meals + (PMMVY).

    Children: ICDS & Mid-Day Meal/PM-POSHAN.

    State-wise coverage is determined by the NITI Aayog by using the NSS Household Consumption Survey data.

    Identification of eligible households is done by States/UTs

    Food security allowance: If foodgrains are not supplied, beneficiaries receive compensation.

    Grievance redressal mechanisms at state and district levels including State Food Commissions.

    Role of NFSA in eliminating hunger and malnutrition in India

    Reduced out-of-pocket spending on staple foods has improved dietary diversity by ‘crowding in’ the consumption of nutrient-dense foods

    Fortified rice under NFSA covers 291 districts (Phase II) and over 65% of NFSA households

    Malnourishment in children under 5 years has reduced (NHFS-5)

    Stunting – from 38.4% to 35.5%,

    Wasting – 21.0% to 19.3% and

    Underweight – 35.8% to 32.1% .

    Malnutrition among women aged 15-49 years has also reduced from 22.9% to 18.7%.

    Food Security during COVID under Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana

    Regular PDS supply has reduced seasonal hunger in tribal belts of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh

    ICDS covers an 90 million children, 11 million pregnant women, and 2 million adolescent girls

    However, despite these steps there are few challenges

    As per study by Crisil using a ‘thali index’, up to 50% of rural and 20% of urban Indians cannot afford two balanced meals a day

    Fiscal Burden – Food subsidy budget @ 2.1 lakh cr in 2025-26

    Even with PDS support, food deprivation remained 40% in rural and 10% in urban areas

    Diversion – Eg- 28% of allocated foodgrains fail to reach beneficiaries as per HCES 2022-23.

    Inclusion and exclusion errors due to faulty beneficiary identification.

    Corruption at Fair Price Shops (FPS) – Issues of under-weighing, overcharging etc

    Persistent triple burden of malnutrition

    Way Forward

    Shanta Kumar Committee Recommendations on Revamping of PDS

    Direct Procurement by States

    Private Sector Involvement in procurement, storage, and distribution

    Diversify the food basket – Include millets, pulses, edible oil and iodised salt

    Nutrition Education and Behavior Change through nudge theory. Eg- POSHAN Abhiyaan’s Jan Andolan people’s movement approach

    Involvement of Civil Society – Eg- Akshaya Patra Foundation’s centralized kitchens model

    Strengthening Life-cycle Approach to Nutrition– Eg- Karnataka’s “Mathrupoorna” scheme provides one full meal to pregnant women.

    To realise SDG 1,2,3,and 12, the focus needs to shift from Food Security to Nutritional Security

  • What are the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification?

    A cropping pattern is the distribution of various crops within a specific area at a given time. Presently, rice and wheat account for 75% of overall foodgrain production and 37% of net-sown area.

    Challenges Before Crop Diversification

    94% of the total agri and allied sector output is outside MSP support.

    Input constraints – Limited HYV seeds, overdependence on chemical fertilizers. Eg- Seed replacement rate is 35-45% (over 90% in USA)

    Input Subsidy Bias – Subsidies for power, urea, canal water favour water-intensive crops, making alternatives less attractive.

    Low income trap limits farmers ability to invest in High Value crops and Technology.

    High monsoon dependence – About 55% of cultivable land is rainfed – increasing risk and limiting diversification.

    Fragmented landholdings – 86% Small and marginal farmers – restrict mechanisation.

    Shift to commercial crops – Expansion of cotton (Deccan belt) and sugarcane (Punjab-Haryana, Krishna-Godavari basin) crowds out food crops.

    Human factors – Population pressure, subsistence farming, and low risk appetite hinder diversification.

    Institutional weaknesses – Defective land tenure, and poor processing for perishables. Eg- Only 13% mandis digital.

    Market Uncertainty – Lack of assured markets for pulses, oilseeds, millets, fruits, and vegetables limits farmers’ ability to shift.

    Infrastructural gaps – Eg- cold storage can accommodate only 11% of total produce.

    Role of Emerging Technologies in promoting Crop Diversification

    Precision Agriculture – Drones, IoT sensors, GIS enable farmers to manage diverse crops with accurate irrigation, nutrition, and pest control.

    Biotechnology – Stress-tolerant and climate-resilient varieties encourage diversification. Eg- Drought Tolerant High-Yielding Chickpea Variety “SAATVIK (NC 9)”

    Micro-Irrigation – Drip and sprinkler systems make cultivation of horticulture, vegetables, and spices viable even in dry regions.

    Protected Cultivation Technologies – Eg- Polyhouses and shade nets allow off-season vegetables, flowers, and exotics.

    Digital Platforms like e-NAM, agritech apps, FPO digital platforms provide real-time prices and reduce market risk for alternative crops.

    Cold-Chain Technologies support high-value horticulture diversification. Eg: Apple packhouses.

    Biofertilisers improve soil health and make pulses, oilseeds, and millets more viable in rainfed regions.

    Climate-Smart Advisory Systems – AI-based weather advisories, satellite-based crop monitoring help farmers shift to climate-resilient crops.

    Financial inclusion under JAM and DBT under PM KISAN increases capital investment and promotes diversification to high value crops

    When science meets scale, when innovation becomes inclusive, when technology drives transformation, the foundation for great achievements is laid – PM Modi


  • How did land reforms in some parts of the country help to improve the socio-economic conditions of marginal and small farmers?

    Land reform refers to the systematic alteration of laws, regulations, and practices governing land ownership, distribution, and use to achieve social and economic justice.

    Impact of land reforms on socio-economic conditions of Farmers

    Abolition of Zamindari

    States like Kerala, West Bengal, Karnataka eliminated intermediary rights, transferring ownership to actual cultivators.

    Increased security, reduced exploitation, and improved bargaining power.

    West Bengal’s Operation Barga (1978) registered sharecroppers and guaranteed them 75% share in output when they used their own inputs.

    Raised incomes of more than 1.5 million tenant farmers.

    Land ceiling laws and redistribution of surplus land in states such as Kerala and West Bengal improved access to land for landless labourers and marginal farmers.

    Punjab and Haryana undertook extensive land consolidationmodern machinery, improved cropping intensity, and raised productivity.

    Ownership titles enabled farmers to access Kisan Credit Card, cooperative banks, and PSB loans

    Reduction in rural poverty and inequality

    Rural poverty fell sharply in Kerala and West Bengal post-tenancy reforms.

    States with stronger reforms saw better literacy, nutrition, and health outcomes.

    Empowerment of women – States like Kerala recognized women’s rights in land inheritance.

    Major Challenges

    Land Reforms is ‘state subject’ – Lack of political will and uniformity in implementation

    Legal loopholes – In Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar

    Fragmented Landholdings – Average operational holding has fallen to 0.74 ha (NABARD), making consolidation challenging.

    Inadequate Institutional Capacity – Revenue departments face deficits in manpower, technology, and coordination.

    Despite legal provisions, women hold only 11-13% of operational holdings due to inheritance barriers.

    High Land Litigation – Over two-thirds of civil cases in lower courts involve land disputes

    Land reform 2.0 based on modernisation of records (DILRMP), redistribution of land and land leasing reforms is essential to realise the objective of ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

  • How and to what extent would micro-irrigation help in solving India’s water crisis?

    Micro irrigation is a water-efficient irrigation technique that delivers water directly to plant roots using drip or sprinkler systems, reducing water wastage.

    18% of the world’s population but only 4% of global freshwater resources.

    ~85% of India’s freshwater is used in agriculture (FAO).

    Groundwater depletion:

    1,006 blocks are over-exploited or critical (CGWB, 2023).

    Punjab and Haryana – ~1 metre annual groundwater decline.

    Per capita water availability fell from 1,820 m³ (2001)1,486 m³ (2025).

    Role of Micro-Irrigation in Solving India’s Water Crisis

    Significant Water Saving – saves around 30-50% water compared to flood irrigation.

    Higher Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

    Sprinkler Irrigation – 75%

    Drip Irrigation – 90%

    Higher Yields: Eg- increases yields by 45% for wheat, 20% for gram, and 40% for soybean.

    Reduced Water Loss through evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation

    Lower Fertilizer Use: Through fertigation, fertilizers are applied directly to the plant roots along with water

    Reduced Groundwater Extraction – Eg- Drip in sugarcane in Maharashtra reduced water use by 22-25%.

    Improves Climate Resilience – Provides controlled irrigation during dry spells.

    Micro-irrigation can double irrigation coverage using existing water resources (NITI Aayog).

    Limitations of micro-irrigation

    Low Adoption – micro-irrigation covers only 7.6% of the net sown area

    High Initial Cost – Eg- Drip irrigation costs .

    Regular maintenance needs to avoid clogging, leakage, and damage is technically difficult for farmers.

    Technical Knowledge Gap: lack of know-how to correctly install, operate, and maintain micro-irrigation systems.

    Social and Cultural Barriers: Traditional farming practices and resistance to change.

    Regional imbalance – Eastern and northern states lag.

    Not Suitable for all crops– Eg-Flood irrigation is preferred for water-intensive crops like paddy

    Government Initiatives

    PMKSY – “Per Drop More Crop” – subsidies up to 55%.

    Micro-Irrigation Fund under NABARD – 10000 Cr

    Andhra Pradesh Micro-Irrigation Project (APMIP)

    Micro-irrigation is critical for achieving equitable, efficient and sustainable irrigation management. (“Vision for Sujalam Bharat”)

  • “Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.”Discuss in the light of India’s experience

    The World Bank defines infrastructure as “the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society, enterprise, or system.” It is prerequisite for rapid, inclusive and sustainable growth.

    Importance of Investment in Infrastructure for Rapid Growth

    A 1% increase in infrastructure investment can raise output by 0.4% in the same year and by 1.5% in 4 years. (IMF)

    Modern transport, logistics and energy infrastructure reduce time and transaction costs and increase competitiveness.

    Boosts Manufacturing & Exports – Eg- Port led development under Sagarmala project

    Crowds in domestic private investment and FDI –

    Facilitates Urbanisation and industrialization- Eg- industrial corridors, and smart cities support agglomeration economies and higher output.

    Energy Security through investments in renewables (48 % of the total installed capacity).

    Importance of Investment in Infrastructure for Inclusive Growth

    Bridges Rural-Urban Divide- Rural roads, irrigation networks and decentralised energy systems enhance market access and livelihoods. Eg- PMGSY

    Access to Basic Services – Water supply, sanitation, healthcare facilities, and DPI ensure equitable access for vulnerable groups. Eg- Jal Jeevan Mission

    Balanced Regional Growth- Connectivity in tribal, hilly, and northeastern regions improves mobility, education access, and economic opportunity.

    Employment Generation for low-skilled and semi-skilled workers. Eg- The PM Gati Shakti initiative is expected to create 1 crore+ jobs by 2030.

    Improves standard of living – Eg- over 4Cr houses constructed under PMAY

    Women Empowerment – Eg- SBM improving access to sanitation

    India’s Experience – Achievements and Challenges

    India has the second largest road network in the world (1.5 lakh km National Highway)

    Ports & Logistics: Sagarmala increased port capacity beyond 2,600 MTPA.

    Digital Infrastructure: Aadhaar, UPI, BharatNet deepened digital inclusion.

    Energy: Renewable capacity crossed 240+ GW, improving energy security.

    Challenges

    Lack Of Integrated Policy- India has the second largest infrastructure deficit in the world (after Brazil)

    Financing Constraints: NIP requires Rs 111 lakh crore.

    Delays in Land Acquisition & Clearances slowing project execution. Eg- Mumbai Metro

    Urban Infrastructure Deficits: Eg- 17% population living in slums

    Logistics Inefficiencies: 13-14% logistics cost compared to 8-10% global average

    Poor concession agreements and litigation in PPP projects

    Neglect of social infrastructure – Eg- health and education spending at 1.9% and 4% of GDP only

    Inadequate R&D expenditure (0.7% of GDP) hinder the adoption of innovative solutions.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen PPP Models with better risk-sharing and transparent concession agreements. (Kelkar Committee recommendations)

    Accelerate Gati Shakti Platform for integrated planning and faster clearances.

    Increase Sustainable Financing via green bonds, NIIF, and development finance institutions.

    Focus on Climate-Resilient Infrastructure in coastal, drought-prone and flood-prone regions.

    Sustainable and high-quality infrastructure is a essential for realisation of a $40 Trillion economy by 2047.

  • Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product(GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015.

    Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a given period. GDP in India is calculated by the National Statistical Office (NSO).

    The post-2015 GDP methodology aims to provide a more accurate, data-rich, and globally comparable picture of India’s economy. To improve reliability, there is a need for greater transparency.