Central Idea: A tribal council’s order not to issue a Scheduled Tribe (ST) certificate to any Khasi person who adopts the surname of her or his father has triggered a war of words in matrilineal Meghalaya.
Matrilineal Society of Meghalaya
Multiple tribes in Meghalaya, northeast India, practice matrilineal descent.
Khasi and Garo people are the primary tribes discussed in the article.
The term “Ki Hynniew Trep” (The Seven Huts) refers to the Khasi people, while the Garo people are also known as Achik people.
These tribes have a proud heritage of matrilineality, but there are concerns about the decline of matrilineal traits.
Background
Khasi people are an ancient tribe and are considered the largest surviving matrilineal culture in the world.
Khasis, along with other subgroups like the Garo, reside in Meghalaya, as well as bordering areas of Assam and Bangladesh.
The matrilineal tradition practiced by the Khasi people is unique within India.
Matrilineal principles are emphasized in myths, legends, and origin narratives of the Khasi tribe.
Reference to “Nari Rajya” in the epic Mahabharata likely correlates with the matrilineal culture of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya.
Rights, Roles and Responsibilities
Women play a dominant role in the matrilineal society of Meghalaya.
The youngest daughter, known as Ka Khadduh, inherits ancestral property.
Husbands live with their mother-in-law after marriage.
Children take their mother’s surname.
In case a couple has no daughters, they can adopt a daughter and pass property rights to her.
The birth of a girl is celebrated, and there is no social stigma associated with women remarrying or giving birth out of wedlock.
Women have the freedom to intermarry outside their tribe.
Independent, well-dressed, unmarried women enjoy security and prefer not to get married.
Many small businesses are managed by women.
Comparison between Garo and Khasi Practices
Bina Agarwal compared the Garo and Khasi practices in 1994. (Aspirants with Sociology optional are bound to remember the sociologist’s name.)
Garo also practices matrilineal inheritance and matrilocal post-marital residence.
Both tribes accept pre-marital sex by women, but adultery by women is punished.
The Khasi practice duolocal post-marital residence, where the husband lives separately from the wife’s parents’ residence.
The Khasi have an aversion to cross-cousin marriage.
Roles of Men and Political Representation
Mothers or mothers-in-law are responsible for the care of children.
Khasi men perceive themselves as having a secondary status and established societies to protect men’s rights.
Representation of women in politics, legislative assembly, village councils, and panchayats is minimal.
Women believe they handle money matters better and enjoy economic freedom.
Matrilineal, not matriarchal
While society is matrilineal, it is not matriarchal. In past monarchies of the state, the son of the youngest sister of the king inherited the throne.
Even now in the Meghalaya Legislative Assembly or village councils or panchayats the representation of women in politics is minimal.
Issues with the system
Some Khasi men perceive themselves to be accorded a secondary status.
They have established societies to protect equal rights for men.
They express that Khasi men don’t have any security, they don’t own land, they don’t run the family business and, at the same time, they are almost good for nothing.
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17th May 2023
Agriculture, Applied Aspects
Agriculture is the science, art and practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
Humans Engage in different activities to exploit natural resources and the most ancient of them are Primary activities.
Primary activities are directly dependent on the environment and some of these activities are:
Gathering and hunting:
These are the oldest economic activities known.
Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic conditions.
It often involves primitive societies, who extract both plants and animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter and clothing.
The main features of Gathering and Hunting activities are:
Low Capital / Skill Investment
Low Yield Per Person
No Surplus in production
Gathering is practised in the following areas of the world:
Northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile (High Altitude Areas)
Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts of Southeast Asia.
Nomadic Herding or Pastoral Nomadism:
Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity, in which the herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
They move from one place to another along with their livestock, depending on the amount and quality of pastures and water, thus there is an irregular pattern of movement.
It is different from Transhumance in which there is a fixed seasonal pattern of movement.
Nomadic pastoralism is commonly practised in regions with little arable land, typically in the developing world.
Of the estimated 30–40 million nomadic pastoralists worldwide, most are found in central Asia and Northern and western regions of Africa, some parts of southern Africa and Tundra regions.
In the Himalayas, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas are nomadic pastoralists who practice transhumance.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD
Commercial Livestock Rearing:
Commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital-intensive activity in comparison to the Nomadic pastoralism. It is generally practised in permanent ranches.
Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported to different world markets emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care of the animals.
New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and the United States of America are important countries where commercial livestock rearing is practised.
Ranches refers to the large stock farms, usually fenced in, where animals are bred and reared on a commercial scale. They are found especially in the United States.
Primary Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown.
Subsistence agriculture
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
This agriculture is also known as Shifting Cultivation.
It is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and Central America and south East Asia.
When the vegetation is cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil, it is called slash and burn agriculture.
After sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil loses its fertility and the farmer shifts to other parts and clears other patches of the forest for cultivation.
Name
Region
Jhum
North-eastern India
Vevar and Dahiyaar
Bundelkhand Region (Madhya Pradesh)
Deepa
Bastar District (Madhya Pradesh)
Zara and Erka
Southern States
Batra
South-eastern Rajasthan
Podu
Andhra Pradesh
Kumari
Hilly Region of the Western Ghats of Kerala
Kaman, Vinga and Dhavi
Odisha
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
In this type of farming system, crops are grown mainly for local consumption. If there is a surplus, then it is sold in the market.
This type of farming is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
Basically, there are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture.
One is dominated by wet paddy and
Another is dominated by crops such as sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, maize, and vegetables.
Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming are: Tonkin Delta (Vietnam), lower Menem (Thailand); lower Irrawaddy (Myanmar); and the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta, Eastern Coastal Plains (India).
Mediterranean Agriculture
It is practised within the Mediterranean climatic region where winter is wet and summer is dry.
Farming is intensive, highly specialised and varied in the kind of crops raised.
Many crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables are raised for domestic consumption, while others like citrus fruits, olives and grapes are grown mainly for export.
That’s why this region is also called Orchard Lands of the World and it is the heart of the world’s wine industry. This region is famous around the world for the production of citrus fruits and grapes in the world.
Viticultureor grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in various countries of this region. The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This region also produces olives and figs. The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.
Plantation Agriculture
This type of farming has developed in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America, where the influence of the Europeans have been important during the colonial period.
Though practiced over a rather small area, this type of farming is quite important in terms of its commercial value.
Tea, coffee, rubber and oil palm are the major products of this type of farming. Most of the plantations were developed to provide some of the important tropical crops to the European markets.
Important plantation regions:
Tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka
Banana and sugar plantations in the West Indies
Coffee plantations in Brazil
Rubber in Malaysia
This is a highly capital-intensive farming and most of the crops are tree crops.
EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN CULTIVATION
This type of agriculture system is mainly practiced in the Eurasian steppes in regions of chernozem soil, Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury Plain of New Zealand.
The main characteristics of this type of agriculture are:
highly mechanized cultivation
farms are very large
predominance of wheat
low yield per acre but yield per capita is high.
MIXED FARMING
This type of agricultural system is found in the highly developed parts of the world: north-western Europe, eastern North America, Russia, Ukraine, and the temperate latitudes of parts of the southern continents.
Farming is veryintensive and sometimes highly specialized.
Traditionally, farmers have practised a mixed economy by raising animals and growing crops on the same farm.
Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.
DAIRY FARMING
Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milking machines add to the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.
It is highly labour intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is no off season during the year as in the case of crop raising.
It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which provide neighbourhood markets for fresh milk and dairy products. The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other preservation processes have increased the duration of shortage of various dairy products.
MARKET GARDENING AND HORTICULTURE
It is practised mainly in the same region as that of mixed farming that consists of cultivation of vegetables, fruit and flowers solely for the urban market.
It is well-developed in the densely populated industrial districts of north-western Europe (Britain, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany) and in North-Eastern USA.
The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only, the farming is known as truck farming. The distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence the name truck farming.
FACTORY FARMING
Factory farming is a method ofmass food production in which animals are kept in very confined areas in order to get the best possible profit.
This farming is particularly concentrated in Developed countries like USA, European nations, Australia etc.
CO-OPERATIVE FARMING
A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. Individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.
Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming, sell the products at the most favourable terms and help in processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
Co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in many western European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is a member of a co-operative.
COLLECTIVE FARMING
The basic principle behind this type of farming is based onsocial ownership of the means of productionand collective labour.
Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in the erstwhile Soviet Union to improve upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.
The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. However, they were allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements.
Yearly targets were set by the government and the produce was also sold to the state at fixed prices.
Produce in excess of the fixed amount was distributed among the members or sold in the market. The farmers had to pay taxes on the farm produce, hired machinery etc.
Members were paid according to the nature of the work allotted to them by the farm management.
Exceptional work was rewarded in cash or kind. This type of farming was introduced in the former Soviet Union under the socialist regime which was adopted by the socialist countries. After its collapse, these have already been modified.
INDIAN AGRICULTURE
INTRODUCTION
India is an agricultural economy where 49% of the people depend directly or indirectly on agriculture.
Net sown area still accounts for about 47% of the total land area of India.
In India, over 80 per cent of water is used in irrigation. Of the net sown area of around 140 million hectares (Mn ha), close to half (68.4 Mn ha) is irrigated (2019)
Major states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha among others are still majorly dependent on Agriculture.
GDP compositions in 2018-19 are as follows (ES2020)
Agriculture (16.5%)
Services (55.3%)
Industry (28.6%)
Facts/Data related to Agriculture sector
Share of agriculture and allied sectors in Gross Value Addition (GVA) has declined from 18.2 percent in 2014-15 to 16.5 percent in 2019-20.
The Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 percent in 2019-20 as compared to growth of 2.9 percent in 2018-19.
According to the 2010-11 Agricultural Census, 47% of landholdings had become less than half a hectare in size. These holdings are too small to support a family of five so that many farmers now seek alternative sources of income – NITI 3-year action agenda
About 80 percent of farmers own less than two hectare.
SALIENT FEATURES OF AN INDIAN AGRICULTURE
Subsistencetype of agriculture.
Dependent on unreliable and erratic monsoon (about 60 percent)
India’s vast relief, varying climate and soil conditions produce a variety of crops
All tropical, subtropical and temperate crops are grown across geographical areas.
Predominance of food crop → about 2/3rd of total cropped area.
Supports allied sectors and activities – cattle, poultry etc.
Major involvement of women in Indian agriculture sector
Characterized by poor mechanization, inadequate Agricultural research and extension services.
Fragmented nature of agricultural holding.
PRODUCTIVITY OF AGRICULTURE
Productivity of Agriculture is defined as the number of crops produced per unit land.
Productivity levels in Indian agriculture are very low as compared to the productivity levels of other countries – China, USA etc.
Like in 2018, average productivity in India was 3075 Kg/ha while world average was 3200kg/ha.
Fertiliser use, irrigation and rainfall cause significant variation in productivity
Productivity in the regions of Green revolution are certainly higher than other areas. Other high productivity regions are Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal and Maharashtra.
The productivity in Gangetic plain is reducing because of Land bifurcation leading to reduced size of land holdings.
Key issues affecting agricultural productivity include the decreasing sizes of agricultural land holdings, continued dependence on the monsoon, inadequate access to irrigation, imbalanced use of soil nutrients resulting in loss of fertility of soil, uneven access to modern technology in different parts of the country, lack of access to formal agricultural credit, limited procurement of food grains by government agencies, and failure to provide remunerative prices to farmers.
Cropping Intensity
The ratio of the gross cropped area to the net sown area.
As the land is cropped multiple times, the cropping intensity increases.
It depends on factors like climate, demand of crops, availability of irrigation and other inputs etc.
CROPS
A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence.
Basic facts
India produced 284.83 Mn tons of food grains in 2018.
India is the world’s largest producer of milk, pulses and jute.
India occupies a leading position in global trade of agricultural products, agricultural export basket accounts for a little over 2.15 per cent of the world agricultural trade.
Crop classification based upon the type of produce
Type
Description
Examples
Food crops
Crops used for human consumption
Cereals, i.e. grass like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional value – rice, wheat, maize. Pulses for e.g. gram tur etc.
Cash crop
Grown for sale in raw or processed form
Cotton, jute, tobacco, castor, oilseeds
Plantation crop
Grown in plantations covering large estates.
Tea, coffee, coconut, rubber, spices, etc.
Horticulture
Fruits and vegetables
Fruits (apple, mango, bananas) and vegetables (onion, tomato etc.)
Crop classification based upon climate
Tropical
Temperate
Crops grown well in hot and warm climate
Crops grown well in cool climate
e.g. rice, sugarcane, jawar
e.g. wheat, gram, potato
Crop classification based on growing season
The kharif
Season starts in June and ends in October and largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon under which the cultivation of tropical crops such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is possible.
The rabi
Season begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-April. The low temperature conditions during this season facilitate the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram and mustard.
Zaid
Short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops. The cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this season is done on irrigated lands. However, this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in southern parts of the country.
Recently, The Indian government has denied that it is seeking wholesale repatriation of cultural property extracted by Britain from India during colonial times.
In this context, this edition of the Burning Issue will discuss about the Indian cultural properties aboard and their repatriation.
Background
The Indian government was reacting to a story published in the U.K.’s Telegraph newspaper and said the headline and story were “unfortunately misleading”.
Government sources said that while it was seeking the restitution of artifacts taken from India, the story was a “significant overstatement” in terms of how it portrays the government and its approach to the U.K.
It further added that its approach was to retrieve antiquities via “cooperation and partnership” and in a manner consistent with international agreements.
Issue of Cultural Property Trafficking
According to the Indian Ministry of Culture, 101 antiquities have been stolen from the subcontinent’s Centrally Protected Monuments between 2000 and 2016.
The U.S.-based alliance charted reported cultural property seizures since 2014 and found that nearly $65 million worth of illegal artifacts had been seized between 2014 and 2019.
Like any other illicit trade, the grey market of artifacts arguably seeds the ground for terrorism.
Among the world’s largest cut diamonds, the infamous Koh-i-Noor was taken by Queen Victoria after the annexation of the subcontinent.
Procedure of return
International organizations such as UNESCO and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC have been at the forefront of the fight against cultural heritage crimes. Their combined expertise and global partnerships have led to the establishment of standard-setting instruments that enhance responses to and the protection against cultural theft. The process involves the following steps:
Identification: Identify cultural properties that may have been wrongfully acquired or removed.
Legal and Ethical Considerations: Consider international conventions, national laws, and ethical guidelines pertaining to repatriation.
Collaboration and Negotiation: Collaborate and negotiate with the country of origin and the current possessor to reach an agreement.
Evidence and Documentation: Gather evidence and documentation supporting the claim for repatriation, such as historical records and provenance research.
Public Awareness and Advocacy: Raise public awareness and advocate for repatriation through campaigns and outreach efforts.
Restitution and Return: Arrange for the safe return of the cultural property to its country of origin, considering logistics and storage.
Future Preservation and Collaboration: Ensure the proper care, conservation, and display of the repatriated cultural property, and foster ongoing collaboration between the country of origin and international institutions.
International agreements
The 1970 UNESCO Convention: on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (hereafter, the 1970 Convention) mandate in the prevention of organised crime and cultural trafficking, and offer systematic tools to strengthen national capacity.
UN resolution 2347: Condemns the unlawful destruction of cultural heritage, including the destruction of religious sites and artefacts, and the looting and smuggling of cultural property from archaeological sites, museums, libraries, archives, and other sites, notably by terrorist groups.
Significance of return of cultural properties
Preserving Heritage: Cultural property acts as a bridge between the past, present, and future generations, preserving a nation’s heritage. The cultural property of a country is a testament to its history and heritage and should belong to the nation. Illicit trade and smuggling of artifacts have plagued the art and culture market of the world.
National Identity and Pride: Cultural property plays a vital role in defining a nation’s identity and fostering a sense of pride among its citizens. It symbolizes the unique values, beliefs, and customs that distinguish one nation from another. It gives people a sense of belonging and collective memory, strengthening social cohesion and unity.
Tourism and Economic Benefits: Cultural property often attracts tourists from around the world, contributing to the nation’s economy. Heritage sites, museums, cultural festivals, and artistic traditions draw visitors who spend money on accommodation, transportation, food, and souvenirs. The preservation and promotion of cultural property can generate employment opportunities and sustainable economic development. The preservation and protection of the Indian artifacts and cultural heritage are an integral component of India’s foreign policy.
Education and Research: Cultural property serves as an educational resource, offering insights into different historical periods, social structures, artistic styles, and technological advancements. It provides researchers, scholars, and students with valuable primary sources for studying various disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology, history, art, and linguistics.
Cultural Diplomacy: Cultural property represents a nation’s soft power, allowing for cultural exchange and diplomacy. Exhibitions, collaborations, and cultural exchange programs enhance mutual understanding and promote positive relations between nations. Sharing cultural heritage can foster peace, tolerance, and cooperation among diverse communities globally.
Issues involved
Unlike other countries’ sources of this trade, like China, India doesn’t have heritage protection laws.
International conventions and laws are not legally binding making them toothless.
The treatment of its cultural heritage by Indian institutions as well as the religious belief of the larger part of the society brings another dimension to the narrative.
Some Previous Returns
Aiming to return antiquities allegedly stolen from their motherland, the volunteer-run India Pride Project (IPP) uses social media to identify artefacts worldwide and investigates cases coordinating authorities, global agencies, museums and a small tightly-knit curator community.
The Network found a 12th-century bronze statue of Buddha at a trade fair. Ransacked from the Archaeological Museum in Nalanda (in eastern India) in 1961 along with 14 other sculptures, the figure was later returned to India following its identification by the Association for Research into Crimes Against Art (ARCA), an organization working to preserve cultural legacies.
The Art Gallery of South Australia in Adelaide to recognize its illicit possession of a stolen 16th-century statue of Siva Nataraja and to return it following an official request from India.
In 2022, the Australian Government repatriated 29 antiquities to India. These artifacts are broadly categorized into the following themes – Shiva and his disciples, Lord Vishnu and his forms, portraits, worshipping Shakti, Jain tradition and decorative objects.
India was successful in bringing back 157 antiquities from the United States of America in 2021.
An 18th-century idol of Maa Annapurna stolen from Varanasi in 1913 was returned by Canada in November 2021.
Jagdamba Sword used by Chh. Shivaji Maharaj
Way forward
Social media, coupled with informed journalism and inclusive decision-making across governance levels, can also offer an encouraging step forward.
A key measure is the development of digital inventories and professional documentation of cultural property. Local and regional museums may benefit from augmenting their digitization capacities.
Digital imaging, which could nowadays be done via smartphone applications in numerous regional languages, can optimize the recognition of the stolen object, prevent its movement and intercept it.
The objects must also be well-documented, cataloged, and digitized to create a permanent database of the nation’s heritage. Another crucial step towards eliminating the problem is preventing the formation and expansion of illegitimate groups that harbor this trade.
Conclusion
As pointed out by UNESCO, this has also underlined the fact that illicit trade of cultural properties is not an individual problem of a country but an issue at the global level. The 1970 Convention solely will not tackle this issue, it should be the collective efforts of the governments, societies, communities, and the people to spread awareness regarding the importance of national and cultural heritage and how to safeguard them.
Preventing the expansion of illicit networks would not only prevent the exploitation of humanity’s shared heritage but also safeguard community identity.
Central Idea: The monsoon is likely to set in over Kerala with a “slight delay” on June 4, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said. The usual onset date over Kerala is June 1, within a seven-day window.
What does the “Onset of Monsoon” mean?
The onset of the monsoon over Kerala marks the beginning of the four-month, June to September southwest monsoon season over India.
It brings more than 70 per cent of the country’s annual rainfall.
It marks a significant transition in the large-scale atmospheric and ocean circulations in the Indo-Pacific region.
The IMD announces it only after certain newly defined and measurable parameters, adopted in 2016, are met.
The onset is a significant day in India’s economic calendar.
How does IMD predict the monsoon?
Broadly, the IMD checks for the consistency of rainfall over a defined geography, its intensity, and wind speed:
Rainfall: The IMD declares the onset of the monsoon if at least 60% of 14 designated meteorological stations in Kerala and Lakshadweep record at least 2.5 mm of rain for two consecutive days at any time after May 10.
Wind field: The depth of westerlies should be upto 600 hectopascal (1 hPa is equal to 1 millibar of pressure) in the area bound by the equator to 10ºN latitude, and from longitude 55ºE to 80ºE. The zonal wind speed over the area bound by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-80ºE longitude should be of the order of 15-20 knots (28-37 kph) at 925 hPa.
Heat: The INSAT-derived Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) value (a measure of the energy emitted to space by the Earth’s surface, oceans, and atmosphere) should be below 200 watt per sq m (wm2) in the box confined by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-75ºE latitude.
The onset is not officially declared until the prescribed conditions (above) are met.
Factors considered by IMD
The IMD uses a specialised model that forecasts the arrival dates within a four-day window.
It uses six predictors:
Minimum temperatures over northwest India
Pre-monsoon rainfall peak over south Peninsula
Outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) over the South China Sea
Lower tropospheric zonal wind over the southeast Indian Ocean
Upper tropospheric zonal wind over the east equatorial Indian Ocean, and
OLR over the southwest Pacific region
Back2Basics: Long Period Average (LPA)
The IMD predicts a “normal”, “below normal”, or “above normal” monsoon in relation to a benchmark “long period average” (LPA).
The LPA of rainfall is the rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval (like month or season) average over a long period like 30 years, 50 years, etc.
LPA refers to the average rainfall recorded from June to September for the entire country, the amount of rain that falls every year varies from region to region and from month to month.
The IMD’s prediction of a normal monsoon is based on the LPA of the 1971-2020 period, during which India received 87 cm of rain for the entire country on average.
It has in the past calculated the LPA at 88 cm for the 1961-2010 period, and at 89 cm for the period 1951-2000.
Why LPA is needed?
The IMD records rainfall data at more than 2,400 locations and 3,500 rain-gauge stations.
Because annual rainfall can vary greatly not just from region to region and from month to month, but also from year to year within a particular region or month.
An LPA is needed to smooth out trends so that a reasonably accurate prediction can be made.
A 50-year LPA covers for large variations in either direction caused by freak years of unusually high or low rainfall, as well as for the periodic drought years.
It also takes into account the increasingly common extreme weather events caused by climate change.
Range of normal rainfall
The IMD maintains five rainfall distribution categories on an all-India scale. These are:
Normal or near normal, when the percentage departure of actual rainfall is +/-10% of LPA, that is, between 96-104% of LPA;
Below normal, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 10% of LPA, that is 90-96% of LPA;
Above normal, when actual rainfall is 104-110% of LPA;
Deficient, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 90% of LPA; and
Excess, when the departure of actual rainfall is more than 110% of LPA.
Central Idea: Serum Institute of India and Panacea Biotec have applied to the ICMR’s call for Expression of Interest for collaborative Phase-III clinical trials for an indigenous dengue vaccine.
What is Dengue?
Details
Transmission
Primarily transmitted through the bite of infected Aedes mosquitoes
Virus and Serotypes
Dengue virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family
Four distinct serotypes: DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4
Symptoms
High fever, severe headache, joint and muscle pain, rash, pain behind the eyes, mild bleeding
Severe Dengue
Progression to severe dengue can cause plasma leakage, bleeding, organ impairment
Geographic Distribution
Endemic in more than 100 countries, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions
Incidence and Global Impact
100-400 million dengue infections occur annually globally, affecting healthcare systems and economies
Vector and Breeding Sites
Aedes aegypti mosquito breeds in stagnant water containers found near human dwellings
Treatment
No specific antiviral treatment available; supportive care, rest, fluid intake, symptom management
Prevention and Control
Reduce mosquito breeding sites, proper water storage, cleaning of water containers, use of insecticides
Dengue Virus Disease and Global Impact
Dengue virus disease causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide, with 2 to 2.5 lakh (200,000 to 250,000) cases reported annually in India.
The global incidence of dengue has increased dramatically, with over half of the world’s population at risk.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified dengue as one of the top ten global health threats in 2019.
Currently, there is no specific treatment for dengue, highlighting the urgent need for effective vaccines.
Desirable Characteristics of a Dengue Vaccine
The ICMR highlights the desirable characteristics of a dengue vaccine, including a-
Favorable safety profile
Protection against all four serotypes of dengue
Reduced risk of severe disease and death
Induction of a sustained immune response and
Effectiveness regardless of previous sero-status and age
The process of Sikkim joining India occurred about two decades after Sardar Vallabbhai Patel led the integration of princely states into India.
Sikkim’s History with the Chogyal Royals
The kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642 when Phuntsong Namgyal was consecrated as the first ruler or Chogyal.
Sikkim’s monarchy, under the Namgyal dynasty, lasted for 333 years until its integration with India in 1975.
Sikkim had a Tibetan origin and was located between India and China. It often faced conflicts over land with Bhutan and Nepal.
The British saw Sikkim as a buffer state and established a formal relationship with it.
Various treaties like the Treaty of Tumlong (1861), Treaty of Titaliya (1817), Calcutta Convention (1890), and Lhasa Convention (1904) shaped the relationship between Sikkim and the British.
Independent India and Sikkim
After India’s independence, princely states had the option to accede to India or Pakistan.
Sikkim’s unique relationship with British rule led to complexities in its integration with India.
Sardar Vallabbhai Patel and BN Rau wanted Sikkim to sign the Instrument of Accession to integrate it with India.
Jawaharlal Nehru acknowledged the situation in Sikkim and emphasized its autonomous growth.
Sikkim State Congress (SSC), Praja Mandal (PM), and Praja Sudharak Samaj (PSS) demanded a popular government, abolition of landlordism, and accession to India.
A Standstill Agreement was signed to maintain the existing arrangement while discussions continued.
War with China
Sikkim had a state council with elected and nominated members.
Political developments in the 1960s and 1970s played a significant role in Sikkim’s status.
The formation of the Sikkim National Congress (SNC) in 1960 and changes in political leadership on both sides influenced the course of events.
India-China war of 1962 and containment of border skirmishes made it important to clarify the relationship between India and Sikkim.
How Sikkim finally joined India?
The Indian leadership started supporting pro-democracy forces in Sikkim, such as Kazi Dorji of the SNC.
Protests in Sikkim in 1973 led to a tripartite agreement between the Chogyal, the Indian government, and three major political parties.
Elections were held in 1974, and a new constitution limited the role of the monarch.
A referendum held in 1975 resulted in a majority vote in favor of joining India.
The Constitution (Thirty-Sixth Amendment) Bill was passed, recognizing Sikkim as a state in the Union of India.
Sikkim’s new parliament proposed a bill for Sikkim to become an Indian state, which was accepted by the Indian government.
Central Idea: Sam Altman, CEO of OpenAI, is reportedly raising $100 million for Worldcoin, a unique cryptocurrency.
What is Worldcoin?
Worldcoin, co-founded by Altman and Alex Blania in 2019, aims to provide every human being on Earth with a share of its digital token.
Worldcoin is a crypto project that seeks to establish a global identity and financial network for everyone.
It utilizes a device called the Orb, which scans people’s irises to verify their uniqueness and humanity.
Individuals who undergo the iris scan are rewarded with Worldcoin tokens.
The World App, developed by Worldcoin, enables users to make payments, purchases, and transfers using Worldcoin and other digital assets.
The project plans to launch in the first half of 2023 and distribute a total of 10 billion tokens, with 80% going to users.
Functioning of Worldcoin
Worldcoin’s founders aimed to freely distribute shares of the digital token to every person on the planet.
They envisioned it as a global distribution system for Universal Basic Income and a means to distribute profits generated by AI systems equally among people.
To ensure fair distribution, Worldcoin utilizes biometric iris scans through the Orb device.
The Orb scans the iris and converts it into a hash, which is impossible to recreate even if compromised.
The iris hash and the user’s public key hash are sent to Worldcoin servers, and if the person is new to the system, the hashes are added to the database and the company’s blockchain.
Challenges and criticisms
Worldcoin faces challenges regarding the accessibility of the Orb and expanding the user database.
The project plans to incentivize sign-ups by offering coupons or access to loans.
Concerns exist about the privacy and security of biometric data and potential misuse.
Questions arise about the feasibility and scalability of reaching unbanked or underbanked populations.
The value and utility of the Worldcoin token and its competitiveness with other cryptocurrencies or fiat currencies are also subject to scrutiny.
Back2Basics: Cryptocurrency
A cryptocurrency is a digital asset stored on computerised databases.
These digital coins are recorded in digital ledgers using strong cryptography to keep them secure.
The ledgers are distributed globally, and each transaction made using cryptocurrencies are codified as blocks.
And multiple blocks linking each other forms a blockchain on the distributed ledger.
There are estimated to be more than 47 million cryptocurrency users around the world.
These cryptocurrencies are created through a process called mining.
The endorsement of a new working group on disaster risk reduction by the G20, under India’s presidency, presents an opportunity to prioritize disaster risk financing and achieve the targets set by the Sendai framework for 2030. The increasing occurrence of natural and human-made catastrophes globally has highlighted the need for competent financial risk management and insurance.
The Need for Disaster Risk Financing
Recent years have witnessed a surge in both natural and human-made catastrophes worldwide. Disasters not only exacerbate poverty and hinder development but also generate social polarization.
Lack of competent financial risk management and insurance has allowed risks to proliferate, causing havoc in society and the economy. Annual disaster losses have a significant impact on low-income economies
The Role of the G20 in Strengthening Financial Risk Management
Enhancing Risk Understanding and Integration: The G20 can support countries in enhancing their understanding of disaster risks and integrating them into government planning and budget processes. This includes promoting the development and dissemination of risk assessment tools, methodologies, and best practices.
Strengthening Regulation and Supervision in the Insurance Industry: Effective regulation, legislation, and supervision are crucial for the insurance industry to play a proactive role in managing disaster risks. The G20 can facilitate dialogue and cooperation among regulators and policymakers to establish robust frameworks that ensure fair and transparent insurance practices
Facilitating Public-Private Partnerships: Public-private partnerships are essential for managing and financing disaster risks effectively. The G20 can foster an enabling environment for partnerships between governments, private sector entities, and financial institutions.
Shifting from Ex-post to Ex-ante Financing Mechanisms: Traditionally, financial resources for disaster response, recovery, and reconstruction have been mobilized after an event occurs (ex-post financing). The G20 can advocate for a shift towards ex-ante financing mechanisms, where financial resources are pre-arranged and readily available to respond to disasters.
Encouraging Investment in Disaster Risk Reduction: There is a scarcity of investment in a development-oriented approach that focuses on reducing disaster risks. The G20 can promote investment in disaster risk reduction by raising awareness about the benefits of resilience-building measures and creating incentives for both public and private sectors to allocate resources towards risk reduction initiatives.
What is Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group (DRRWG)?
The Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group is a newly endorsed working group within the G20 that focuses on disaster risk reduction.
It serves as a platform for member countries to collaborate and share knowledge on effective strategies for managing and reducing disaster risks.
It aims to address key components of comprehensive financial management strategies for disaster risks, including risk assessment, insurance coverage, financial assistance, and risk transfer mechanisms.
Facts for prelims
What is Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)?
The CDRI is an international coalition of countries, UN agencies, multilateral development banks, the private sector, and academic institutions that aim to promote disaster-resilient infrastructure.
Its objective is to promote research and knowledge sharing in the fields of infrastructure risk management, standards, financing, and recovery mechanisms.
It was launched by the Indian PM Narendra Modi at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit in September 2019.
CDRI’s initial focus is on developing disaster-resilience in ecological, social, and economic infrastructure.
Significance of the Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group (DRRWG)
Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration: The DRRWG provides a platform for member countries to share knowledge, experiences, and best practices in disaster risk reduction. It facilitates collaboration and learning from diverse approaches and methodologies employed by different nations.
Harmonization and Standardization: The DRRWG promotes harmonization and standardization of definitions, methodologies, and data collection practices related to disaster risk assessment and financing. This improves comparability and enables better analysis and benchmarking of disaster risks across different regions.
Access to International Markets: By harmonizing definitions and methodologies, the DRRWG helps countries improve access to international (re)insurance markets. Standardized approaches and better data quality enhance the confidence of insurers and reinsurers, facilitating the availability of insurance coverage and risk transfer mechanisms.
Comprehensive Financial Management Strategies: The DRRWG aims to address all key components of comprehensive financial management strategies for disaster risks. Comprehensive strategies enhance countries’ abilities to manage and reduce disaster risks effectively.
Investment in Disaster Risk Reduction: The DRRWG emphasizes the importance of investment in disaster risk reduction initiatives. By providing screening criteria for disaster-resilient investments and entities, the DRRWG helps guide investment decisions toward reducing risks and building resilience.
Global Resilience Building: The efforts of the DRRWG contribute to global resilience-building against disasters. By fostering cooperation, sharing expertise, and promoting best practices, the DRRWG strengthens the collective capacity of member countries to mitigate, manage, and recover from disasters, ultimately enhancing global resilience.
How India can guide G20’s disaster management initiatives?
Setting the Agenda: India, as the G20 president, can prioritize disaster management on the agenda of G20 meetings and discussions. By emphasizing the importance of disaster resilience and risk reduction, India can ensure that member countries address these issues at the highest level of international cooperation.
Knowledge Sharing and Capacity Building: India can lead efforts to facilitate knowledge sharing and capacity building among G20 member countries in the field of disaster management. This can involve organizing workshops, training programs, and conferences to promote the exchange of best practices, lessons learned, and innovative approaches.
Policy Advocacy: India can advocate for policy measures that strengthen disaster management capabilities. This includes encouraging the adoption of robust regulatory frameworks, promoting risk-based approaches, and supporting the integration of disaster risk reduction into national development plans and policies.
Financial Commitments: As the G20 president, India can encourage member countries to allocate financial resources towards disaster risk reduction and resilience-building initiatives. By highlighting the economic and social benefits of such investments, India can mobilize support for increased funding and financing mechanisms for disaster management.
Public-Private Partnerships: India can promote partnerships between governments and the private sector to enhance disaster management efforts. By fostering collaboration and sharing expertise, technologies, and resources, India can facilitate the development of innovative solutions and strengthen resilience across sectors.
International Cooperation: India can leverage its position as G20 president to strengthen international cooperation in disaster management. This involves collaborating with other international organizations, regional bodies, and stakeholders to coordinate efforts, share data and information, and foster a collective response to global disaster risks.
Conclusion
Prioritizing disaster risk financing within the G20, under India’s presidency, presents an opportunity to convert intentions into investment opportunities. India’s experience in dealing with natural disasters positions it to lead in disaster risk management.
The recent judgments by the Supreme Court have raised concerns about the admissibility of DNA reports as conclusive evidence in criminal cases. Highlighting issues of suspicion, lack of examination of underlying findings, and reliable application of techniques, the Court has emphasized the need to establish a robust framework for the acceptance of DNA analysis.
What is DNA analysis?
DNA analysis, also known as DNA profiling or DNA testing, is a scientific method used to identify and analyze genetic material present in an individual’s cells.
It involves examining specific regions of DNA to create a unique DNA profile for identification purposes.
DNA analysis is widely used in forensic investigations, paternity testing, ancestry research, and other fields where genetic identification is required.
Transfers and expresses genetic information, protein synthesis
Types of RNA
Not applicable
Messenger RNA (mRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA), Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Presence in Viruses
Yes
Yes
Stability
Relatively stable
More prone to degradation
The process of DNA analysis
Sample Collection: Biological samples such as blood, saliva, semen, hair, or tissues are collected from the individual or the crime scene.
DNA Extraction: The collected sample undergoes a process of DNA extraction, which involves isolating the DNA from other cellular components.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): PCR is used to amplify specific regions of the DNA. This technique allows the production of numerous copies of the targeted DNA sequences.
Short Tandem Repeats (STR) Analysis: STR analysis is performed by examining specific regions of DNA called short tandem repeats. These regions consist of repeating DNA sequences that vary in length among individuals. The number of repeats at each STR locus is determined and used to create a DNA profile.
Electrophoresis: The amplified DNA fragments are separated by size using a technique called electrophoresis. The DNA fragments are placed in a gel matrix and subjected to an electric current, causing them to migrate through the gel. This process separates the DNA fragments based on their sizes.
DNA Profile Generation: The separated DNA fragments are visualized, and the resulting pattern is captured as an individual’s DNA profile. The DNA profile consists of a series of bands corresponding to the sizes of the amplified STR regions.
Comparison and Interpretation: The generated DNA profile is compared to known reference samples, such as those from suspects or victims. The comparison is used to determine if there is a match or exclusion. Statistical calculations, such as the random match probability (RMP), may be used to assess the significance of the match.
Role of DNA analysis in criminal investigations
Identification: DNA analysis is used to identify individuals involved in a crime. By comparing DNA profiles from crime scene samples to reference samples, such as those collected from suspects or victims, investigators can establish or exclude a person’s presence at the crime scene.
Linking Suspects to Crime Scenes: DNA evidence can be compared to a suspect’s DNA profile to determine if they were present at the crime scene. If a match is found, it provides strong evidence connecting the suspect to the crime.
Exclusion of Innocent Individuals: DNA analysis can be used to exclude individuals who are not connected to a crime. If a DNA profile from the crime scene does not match a suspect’s DNA, it can help establish their innocence.
Cold Case Investigations: DNA analysis has been instrumental in solving cold cases where conventional evidence has been limited. Revisiting old DNA samples or re-analyzing evidence using advanced techniques can lead to the identification of previously unknown suspects or the exoneration of wrongly convicted individuals.
Establishing Biological Relationships: DNA analysis is employed in cases involving missing persons, unidentified bodies, and disputed paternity or maternity claims. By comparing DNA profiles, investigators can determine familial relationships or confirm parentage.
Sexual Assault Cases: DNA analysis is particularly significant in sexual assault cases. DNA evidence collected from the crime scene, victim, or perpetrator can provide crucial information for identifying and convicting the offender.
Decoding Crime Scene Evidence: DNA analysis can help decipher complex crime scene evidence. By analyzing DNA profiles from different sources, such as mixed DNA samples, touch DNA, or degraded DNA, forensic experts can unravel critical information about the sequence of events and potential contributors.
Corroboration of Witness Testimony: DNA evidence can corroborate or challenge witness testimony. When witness accounts are in question, DNA analysis can provide objective evidence to support or refute their claims.
Critical Examination of DNA Reports
In recent judgments, such as Rahul v. State of Delhi, Ministry of Home Affairs (2022) and Manoj v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2022), the Supreme Court has raised concerns about the reliability and admissibility of DNA evidence in criminal cases.
Rahul v. State of Delhi:
In Rahul v. State of Delhi, the Court expressed reservations about the reliability of DNA evidence based on the suspicion surrounding the collection and sealing of samples sent for examination.
Despite a match result and other findings, the Court acquitted all three individuals accused of rape and murder.
Manoj v. State of Madhya Pradesh:
In Manoj v. State of Madhya Pradesh, the Court identified the likelihood of contamination in the DNA analysis due to the absence of mentioning the random occurrence ratio.
The Court emphasized the importance of considering the statistical ratio or ‘random match probability’ (RMP), which indicates the frequency of a particular DNA profile in a population. The lack of mention of RMP led to the exclusion of the DNA evidence in this case.
Concerns over the admissibility of DNA reports
Reliability of Techniques: The Court has questioned whether the techniques used in DNA analysis were reliably applied. It is crucial to ensure that the methods employed are scientifically sound and that the experts conducting the analysis possess the necessary expertise.
Examination of Underlying Findings: The Court has criticized the failure of trial courts and higher courts to examine the underlying basis of the findings in DNA reports. It is essential to scrutinize the methodology, procedures, and conclusions drawn from the analysis to determine the accuracy and reliability of the results.
Chain of Custody: The Court has expressed concerns about the integrity of DNA samples and their handling throughout the chain of custody. Proper documentation and maintenance of the chain of custody are vital to establish the authenticity and reliability of the evidence.
Possibility of Contamination: Contamination of DNA samples can significantly impact the reliability and accuracy of the analysis. The Court has highlighted instances where contamination may have occurred, such as improper collection, storage, or handling of samples.
Random Occurrence Ratio (RMP): The Court has emphasized the importance of including the random occurrence ratio or RMP in DNA reports.
Way ahead
Standardized Guidelines: Establish standardized guidelines for DNA analysis in forensic laboratories, including protocols for sample collection, handling, storage, and analysis. These guidelines should encompass best practices to minimize the risk of contamination and ensure the integrity of DNA evidence.
Quality Control Measures: Implement rigorous quality control measures in DNA analysis processes. This includes regular proficiency testing, accreditation of forensic laboratories, and adherence to international quality standards.
Chain of Custody: Emphasize the importance of maintaining a proper chain of custody for DNA samples. Accurate documentation and strict adherence to protocols will help ensure the integrity and admissibility of DNA evidence in court.
Research and Technological Advancements: Encourage research and development in the field of DNA analysis to further enhance the reliability and accuracy of techniques. Explore emerging technologies, methodologies, and advancements in forensic genetics that can improve the analysis of DNA evidence.
Expert Testimony: Enhance the understanding of DNA analysis among legal professionals, judges, and juries. Training programs and workshops can help educate stakeholders about the principles, limitations, and significance of DNA evidence. This will facilitate better comprehension and assessment of DNA reports during legal proceedings.
Collaboration and Peer Review: Foster collaboration among forensic laboratories, DNA experts, and legal professionals to promote knowledge sharing and peer review. This will help maintain high standards of DNA analysis and ensure continuous improvement in the field.
Conclusion
Despite recent concerns, DNA analysis continues to be a valuable tool in criminal cases. By addressing the raised issues through standardized guidelines, quality control, and improved understanding, the admissibility and reliability of DNA reports can be enhanced, contributing to a fair administration of justice.
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