The SEEI improves data collection, enables cross-state collaboration, and develops energy efficiency program ideas.
It helps states identify areas for improvement, learn from best practices, and adopt an economy-wide approach to energy efficiency implementation.
By prioritizing energy efficiency, it aims at driving decarbonization efforts and achieving a more sustainable future.
Key recommendations of the report
The report outlines the following recommendations to help states drive change in EE which will contribute towards the fulfillment of SDGs and NDC:
Enabling fiscal assistance for energy efficiency in the focus sectors.
Developing institutional capacity in states and UTs to address emerging needs and challenges in energy efficiency implementation.
Enhancing cross-functional collaborations across financial institutions, energy service companies, and energy professionals in large-scale energy efficiency implementation in states.
Mainstreaming energy data reporting and monitoring across sectors.
Back2Basics: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)
BEE was established by the Government of India on 1st March 2002 under the provisions of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
The primary objective of BEE is to reduce the energy intensity of the Indian economy by developing policies and strategies based on self-regulation and market principles.
BEE coordinates with designated consumers, designated agencies, and other organizations to perform its functions under the Energy Conservation Act.
The Energy Conservation Act provides for both regulatory and promotional functions for BEE.
BEE’s role includes recognizing, identifying, and utilizing existing resources and infrastructure to promote energy conservation and efficiency.
It works towards driving energy efficiency policies and programs at the state and local level, enabling cross-state collaboration and developing energy efficiency program ideas.
Central Idea: The article provides an explanation of the UN Democracy Fund (UNDEF), its history and objectives, as well as the involvement of India and the United States in its establishment.
Why in news?
There is a controversy surrounding the fund’s support for NGOs funded by George Soros, who is on a watchlist in India.
He had alleged the Adani turmoil will weaken Indian politics and lead to a “democratic revival” in the country.
What is UN Democracy Fund?
The UNDEF was established in 2005 with an initial contribution of $10 million each from the United States and India.
Its aim is to support projects that strengthen the voice and participation of civil society, promote human rights, and encourage the development of democratic institutions and processes.
It is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from member states and is governed by an advisory board composed of 16 members representing different regions of the world.
Role in promoting democracy and civil society
UNDEF’s mission is to support projects that strengthen the voice and participation of civil society, promote human rights, and encourage the development of democratic institutions and processes.
The fund solicits and receives up to 3,000 proposals from NGOs around the world each year.
An advisory board considers these proposals and recommends proposals for approval by the Secretary-General.
Between 30 to 50 projects are chosen every year, and in 15 rounds of funding so far, UNDEF has supported over 880 two-year projects in more than 130 countries.
India’s involvement in the governance of UNDEF
India has been a member of the UNDEF advisory board since the fund’s inception.
The board is composed of 16 members representing different regions of the world, and it includes the eight largest member state contributors and six other states to reflect diverse geographical representation, including one “small island” and developing states.
It also has two individual members and two CSOs.
The CSOs currently serving on the board include CIVICUS and Transparency, Accountability and Participation Network.
India’s involvement in the establishment of UNDEF
India played a key role in the establishment of UNDEF as it was one of the founding members of the fund.
In 2005, India’s then PM, Manmohan Singh, and US President George W. Bush announced the US-India Global Democracy Initiative, which included support for the UNDEF.
India has contributed to the fund on several occasions since its inception, although its contributions have decreased in recent years.
Contradictions with UNDEF
India’s relationship with UNDEF has been marked by contradictions.
While India has supported the fund and contributed to it, it has also put George Soros on a watchlist in India while UNDEF has no objections to the fund giving grants to NGOs funded by Soros.
This underscores a contradiction between the imperatives of the Modi government’s high table diplomacy and its domestic political ideology.
It requires only Delhi to deploy a soft touch in the former while playing hardball at home for domestic audiences.
India’s contribution so far
India has contributed to UNDEF on several occasions since its inception, although its contributions have decreased in recent years.
India gave $5 million to the fund in 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009 and 2011, but no contribution was made in 2007 and 2010.
The contributions began dipping from 2012, with the amount being $4.71 million that year.
In 2014, India slashed its funding, contributing only $200,000 that year and in 2015.
In 2016, it was a mere $50,000, and no contribution was made in 2017.
In 2018 and 2019, India was back with $100,000, and in 2020, 2021 and 2022, it gave $150,000.
The Election Commission of India recognised the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) as a national party, while revoking the status of the All India Trinamool Congress, Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) and the Communist Party of India (CPI).
What is National Party?
The name suggests that a national party would be one that has a presence ‘nationally’, as opposed to a regional party whose presence is restricted to only a particular state or region.
National parties are usually India’s bigger parties.
However, some smaller parties, like the communist parties, are also recognised as national parties in India.
A certain stature is sometimes associated with being a national party, but this does not necessarily translate into having a lot of national political clout.
How is a political party defined?
The ECI’s Political Parties and Election Symbols, 2019 handbook species following criteria:
National Party Definition
For recognition as a “National Party” in India, the conditions specified are:
a 6% vote share in the last Assembly polls in each of any four states, as well as four seats in the last Lok Sabha polls; or
2% of all Lok Sabha seats in the last such election, with MPs elected from at least three states; or
Recognition as a state party in at least four states.
For recognition as a “State Party”, any one of five conditions needs to be satisfied:
two seats plus a 6% vote share in the last Assembly election in that state; or
one seat plus a 6% vote share in the last Lok Sabha election from that state; or
3% of the total Assembly seats or 3 seats, whichever is more; or
one of every 25 Lok Sabha seats (or an equivalent fraction) from a state; or
an 8% state-wide vote share in either the last Lok Sabha or the last Assembly polls.
Benefits for recognized National Parties in India
This is subject to the fulfillment of the conditions prescribed by the Commission in the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968.
(a) Reserved Symbol
If a party is recognised as a ‘state party’, it is entitled for exclusive allotment of its reserved symbol to the candidates set up by it in the state in which it is so recognised.
Recognised ‘state’ and ‘national’ parties in India need only one proposer for filing the nomination.
(c) Campaigning benefits
National Parties in India are also entitled for two sets of electoral rolls free of cost and broadcast/telecast facilities over state-owned Akashvani/Doordarshan during the general elections.
The neglect of the fishing industry by India and Sri Lanka has resulted in an ongoing dispute over fishing rights in the Palk Strait. Developing the fishing industry could help resolve the conflict and boost the economies of both countries.
What is Blue Economy?
Origin of the concept: Gunter Pauli’s book, “The Blue Economy: 10 years, 100 innovations, 100 million jobs” (2010) brought the Blue Economy concept into prominence.
A project to find best nature inspired and sustainable technologies: Blue Economy began as a project to find 100 of the best nature-inspired technologies that could affect the economies of the world. While sustainably providing basic human needs potable water, food, jobs, and habitable shelter.
Inclusive approach and objective: This is envisaged as the integration of Ocean Economy development with the principles of social inclusion, environmental sustainability and innovative, dynamic business models
Environment friendly maritime infrastructure: It is creation of environment-friendly infrastructure in ocean, because larger cargo consignments can move directly from the mothership to the hinterland through inland waterways, obviating the need for trucks or railways
Indo-Sri Lankan dispute over fishing rights in Palk Strait
Maritime boundary agreement: The maritime boundary agreements signed in 1974 and 1976 allowed fishermen of both nations to fish in each other’s waters as they traditionally did.
Absence of physical demarcation: Lack of physical demarcation of maritime boundaries resulted in Indian fishermen encroaching into Sri Lankan waters during the civil war.
Rising conflicts: The Sri Lankan fishing community sought to reclaim their rights after the end of hostilities, leading to conflict with Indian fishers. Sri Lankan Navy’s intervention has resulted in arrests and even fatal shootings of Indian fishermen.
Neglect of the fishing industry by India and Sri Lanka
India’s marine fishery: India’s marine fishery has been dominated by the artisanal sector, which can afford only small sailboats or canoes to fish for subsistence.
Lack of investment: India’s fisheries are being transformed into a commercial enterprise, but lack of investment in a deepwater fleet results in most fishing taking place in coastal waters, leading to competition with neighboring countries.
Underexploited resources: Rich resources in India’s Exclusive Economic Zone remain underexploited, with much of the catch from India’s fishing grounds taken away by better-equipped fishing fleets of other Indo-Pacific countries indulging in illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing.
Growing tensions: Neglect of the fishing industry has resulted in dwindling fish stocks, rising fuel costs, and growing tensions between India and Sri Lanka.
Development of the fishing industry
China: China has mobilized its fishing industry to meet rising demand for protein in the Chinese diet and is now a fishery superpower.
India: India needs to invest in a deepwater fleet to exploit rich fishing grounds in its Exclusive Economic Zone and compete with other countries in the Indo-Pacific region.
India must focus on modernisation: India should focus on mechanization and modernization of fishing vessels, developing deep-water fishing fleets, building a DWF fleet around the mother ship concept, and developing modern fishing harbours.
PM Matsya Sampada Yojana is a scheme launched by the Government of India in 2020, with the aim of boosting the fisheries sector in the country. The scheme has a total outlay of Rs. 20,050 crores and is implemented over a period of five years from 2020-21 to 2024-25. The scheme is focused on four key areas of intervention, which include:
Development of infrastructure and modernization of the fisheries sector: This involves the creation of new fishing harbours, fish landing centres, cold chain facilities, and other related infrastructure.
Fisheries management and regulatory framework: This involves strengthening the regulatory framework for fisheries and aquaculture, promoting sustainable fishing practices, and conserving marine biodiversity.
Fisheries post-harvest operations and value chain: This involves promoting the processing and value addition of fish and fishery products, and improving market access for fishermen and fish farmers.
Aquaculture development: This involves promoting the development of inland fisheries and aquaculture, including the creation of new fish farms, and supporting the adoption of modern technologies for fish farming.
Conclusion
Neglect of the fishing industry by India and Sri Lanka has resulted in an ongoing dispute over fishing rights in the Palk Strait. Developing the fishing industry could help resolve the conflict and boost the economies of both countries. The government’s Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana could be used to form an Indo-Sri Lankan Fishing Corporation to provide a huge boost to the fishing industries of both nations and remove an unwanted irritant in bilateral relations.
Mains Question
Q. It is said that fishing industry has been overly neglected by India and Sri Lanka. Development of the fishing industry is crucial to boost the economy for both the countries. Discuss.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has gained worldwide attention, and many mature democracies are using it for better legislative procedures. In India, AI can be used to assist parliamentarians in preparing responses for legislators, enhancing research quality, and obtaining information about any Bill, legislative drafting, amendments, interventions, and more. However, before AI can work in India, there is a need to codify the country’s laws, which are opaque, complex, and face a huge translation gap between law-making, law-implementing, and law-interpreting organizations.
AI is a constellation of technologies that enable machines to act with higher levels of intelligence and emulate the human capabilities of sense, comprehend and act.
The natural language processing and inference engines can enable AI systems to analyze and understand the information collected.
An AI system can also take action through technologies such as expert systems and inference engines or undertake actions in the physical world.
These human-like capabilities are augmented by the ability to learn from experience and keep adapting over time.
AI systems are finding ever-wider application to supplement these capabilities across various sectors
Need to Codify Laws
Current laws are complex and opaque: Current laws in India pose many challenges, such as their complexity, opaqueness, and lack of a single source of truth.
The India Code portal does not provide complete information: The India Code portal is not enough to provide complete information about parent Acts, subordinate legislation, and amendment notifications.
AI can be used to provide comprehensive information: There is a need to make laws machine-consumable with a central law engine, which can be a single source of truth for all acts, subordinate pieces of legislation, gazettes, compliances, and regulations. AI can use this engine to provide information on applicable acts and compliances for entrepreneurs or recommend eligible welfare schemes for citizens.
Assisting Legislators
Potential of AI for legislators: AI can help Indian parliamentarians manage constituencies with a huge population by analysing citizens’ grievances and social media responses, flagging issues that need immediate attention and assisting in seeking citizen inputs for public consultation of laws and preparing a manifesto.
AI-powered assistance: Many Parliaments worldwide are now experimenting with AI-powered assistants.
For instance:
Netherlands’s Speech2Write system: The Speech2Write system in the Netherlands House of Representatives, which converts voice to text and translates voice into written reports.
AI tools Japan: Japan’s AI tool assists in preparing responses for its legislature and helps in selecting relevant highlights in parliamentary debates.
Brazil: Brazil has developed an AI system called Ulysses, which supports transparency and citizen participation.
NeVA portal India: India is also innovating and working towards making parliamentary activities digital through the ‘One Nation, One Application’ and the National e-Vidhan (NeVA) portal.
Simulating Potential Effects of Laws
Dataset modelling: AI can simulate the potential effects of laws by modelling various datasets such as the Census, data on household consumption, taxpayers, beneficiaries from various schemes, and public infrastructure.
Flag outdated laws: In that case, AI can uncover potential outcomes of a policy and flag outdated laws that require amendment.
For example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, ‘The Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897’ failed to address the situation when the virus overwhelmed the country. Several provisions in the Indian Penal Code (IPC) are controversial and redundant, such as Article 309 (attempted suicide) of the IPC continues to be a criminal offense. Many criminal legislation pieces enacted more than 100 years ago are of hardly any use today.
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic has given a strong thrust to the Digital India initiative, and a digitization of services needs to be kept up in the field of law, policy-making, and parliamentary activities, harnessing the power of AI. However, the use of AI must be encouraged in an open, transparent, and citizen-friendly manner, as AI is a means to an end, not an end in itself. Therefore, it is necessary to address the current challenges faced by India’s laws before AI can be effectively used to assist parliamentarians in their legislative duties.
Mains Question
Q. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has gained worldwide attention, and many mature democracies are using it for better legislative procedures. In this light evaluate the potential of AI in assisting Indian parliamentarians.
India needs an enabling policy and regulatory environment to tap into the potential of the Second Space Age and its rapidly growing space economy.
What is mean by the Second Space Age?
Commercialization: The Second Space Age refers to the recent era of increased commercialization and private sector involvement in space exploration, which began in the early 2000s.
Emergence of private space companies: This period has been marked by the emergence of private space companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic, who are investing heavily in space technology and infrastructure.
Today’s space domain has many more actors once dominated by US and USSR: Compared to the First Space Age dominated by the US and the USSR, today’s space domain has many more actors, with a majority being private companies. Private companies account for 90% of global space launches since 2020, and India is no exception
Increasing involvement of non-spacefaring nations: The Second Space Age is also characterized by the increasing involvement of non-spacefaring nations in space exploration and the development of technologies that enable greater access to space for both commercial and scientific purposes.
Exploration: The hope is that this new era will lead to breakthroughs in areas like space tourism, asteroid mining, and Mars colonization, among others.
India’s journey in space began modestly in the 1960s.
Societal objectives: Over the decades, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) prioritized societal objectives and benefits, such as developing satellite technology for mass communication, remote sensing for weather forecasting, resource mapping of forests, agricultural yields, groundwater and watersheds, fisheries and urban management, and satellite-aided navigation.
Enhanced launch capabilities: ISRO also developed satellite launch capabilities, beginning with the SLV-1 in the 1980s, followed by the PSLV series, which has become its workhorse with over 50 successful launches.
Facts for prelims
Steps taken to promote the space industry in India
Resulting Outcome
Creation of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 1969
Establishment of a strong foundation for space research and exploration in India
Launch of Aryabhata satellite in 1975
First satellite successfully launched by India
Establishment of the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) in 1972
Development of technologies for rocket and satellite launch
Launch of Rohini satellite in 1983
First satellite launched using an Indian-made launch vehicle
Launch of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in 1993
Capability to launch smaller satellites into orbit
Launch of Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) in 2001
Capability to launch larger and heavier satellites into orbit
Successful Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) in 2014
India became the first country to successfully launch a spacecraft to Mars in its first attempt
Formation of NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) in 2019
Increased involvement of private sector in space activities and commercialization of space technologies
Announcement of Gaganyaan mission in 2018
Development of human spaceflight capabilities in India
India’s Space Potential
Economy and employment: India’s space economy, estimated at $9.6 billion in 2020, is expected to be $13 billion by 2025. However, with an enabling policy and regulatory environment, the Indian space industry could exceed $60 billion by 2030, directly creating more than two lakh jobs.
Downstream activities: Downstream activities such as satellite services and associated ground segment are dominant, accounting for over 70% of India’s space economy.
Media and entertainment segment: Media and entertainment account for 26% of India’s space economy, with consumer and retail services accounting for another 21%.
The Growing Role of the Private Sector
Increasing space start ups: The Indian private sector is responding to the demands of the Second Space Age, with over 100 space start-ups today. From less than $3 million in 2018, investment in the sector has doubled in 2019 and crossed $65 million in 2021.
Potential of multiplier effect on economy: The sector is poised for take-off, as a transformative growth multiplier like the IT industry did for the national economy in the 1990s.
Way ahead: Creating an Enabling Environment
ISRO needs to focus on research and collaborate with the Indian private sector, which has different needs and demands.
To create an enabling environment for the private sector, India needs a space activity act that provides legal grounding, sets up a regulatory authority, and enables venture capital funding into the Indian space start-up industry.
Although a series of policy papers have been circulated in recent years, legislation is needed to provide legal backing and create an enabling environment for private sector growth.
Conclusion
India’s space industry has enormous potential, but realizing it requires an enabling policy and regulatory environment that encourages private sector growth. With a space activity act that provides legal backing, sets up a regulatory authority, and enables venture capital funding, India can take advantage of the Second Space Age and become a major player in the global space economy.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by mean Second Space Age? Highlight potential of India’s space industry and growing role of private sector
This Spotlight is a part of our Mission Nikaalo Prelims-2023.
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10th Apr 2023
Important Seas and Mountain Ranges in the World
Tasman Sea
The Tasman Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean, situated between Australia and New Zealand. It measures about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) across and about 2,800 kilometres (1,700 mi) from north to south. The sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman, who was the first recorded European to encounter New Zealand and Tasmania. The British explorer Captain James Cook later extensively navigated the Tasman Sea in the 1770s as part of his first voyage of exploration.
Persian Gulf
This inland sea of some 251,000 square kilometres (96,912 sq mi) is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz; and its western end is marked by the major river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. Its length is 989 kilometres (615 miles), with Iran covering most of the northern coast and Saudi Arabia most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about 56 km (35 mi) wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are overall very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres (295 feet) and an average depth of 50 metres (164 feet).
Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from the north): Iran; Oman’s exclave Musandam; the United Arab Emirates; Saudi Arabia; Qatar, on a peninsula off the Saudi coast; Bahrain, on an island; Kuwait; and Iraq in the northwest. Various small islands also lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region.
Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water.
The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are
Albania
Algeria
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
Cyprus
Egypt
France
Greece
Israel
Italy
Lebanon
Libya
Malta
Morocco
Monaco
Montenegro
Slovenia
Spain
Syria
Tunisia
Tukey
In addition, the Gaza Strip (“Palestine” has been associated with the geographical area that currently covers the State of Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip) and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea.
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean. It has an area of 436,400 km2 (168,500 sq mi) (not including the Sea of Azov). The roughly oval-shaped Black Sea occupies a large basin strategically situated at the southeastern extremity of Europe but connected to the distant waters of the Atlantic Ocean by the Bosporus (which emerges from the sea’s southwestern corner), the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea.
Countries bordering the Black Sea are-
Ukraine
Russia
Georgia
Turkey
Bulgaria
Romania
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed inland body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world’s largest lake or a full-fledged sea. It is in an endorheic basin (a basin without outflows) located between Europe and Asia.
The Caspian Sea is bordered on the northwest by Russia, on the northeast by Kazakhstan, on the west by Azerbaijan, on the southeast by Turkmenistan, and on the south by Iran. It is classified as both a sea and a lake, and it is the largest enclosed inland body of water in the world.
Azerbaijan
Iran
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkmenistan
Red Sea
The Red Sea (also the Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.
The salinity of the Red Sea is greater than the world average, approximately 4 percent. This is due to several factors:
Lack of significant rivers or streams draining into the sea.
Limited connection with the Indian Ocean, which has lower water salinity.
High rate of evaporation and very little precipitation.
The six countries bordering the Red Sea proper are:
Eastern shore:
Saudi Arabia
Yemen
Western shore:
Egypt
Sudan
Eritrea
Djibouti
Aral Sea
The Aral Sea was an endorheic lake lying between Kazakhstan (Aktobe and Kyzylorda Regions) in the north and Uzbekistan (Karakalpakstan autonomous region) in the south. The name roughly translates as “Sea of Islands”, referring to over 1,100 islands that once dotted its waters; in the Turkic languages aral means “island, archipelago”.
South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres (1,400,000 sq mi). The area’s importance largely results from one-third of the world’s shipping sailing through its waters and that it is believed to hold huge oil and gas reserves beneath its seabed.
It is located
south of China;
east of Vietnam and Cambodia;
northwest of the Philippines;
east of the Malay peninsula and Sumatra, up to the Strait of Malacca in the western, and
north of the Bangka–Belitung Islands and Borneo
Ross sea
The Ross Sea is a deep bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica, between Victoria Land and Marie Byrd Land. It derives its name from the British explorer James Ross who visited this area in 1841. To the west of the sea lies Ross Island and to the east Roosevelt Island, while the southernmost part is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf, and is about 200 miles (320 km) from the South Pole.
Weddel sea
The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre. Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula. The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast, Queen Maud Land. To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea. Much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent, massive ice shelf field, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf . The sea is named after the Scottish sailor James Weddell, who entered the sea in 1823 and originally named it after King George IV; it was renamed in Weddell’s honour in 1900.
Mountain Ranges
Sr. No.
Mountain Range
Important/Highest Peaks
Location
Description
1
Rocky Mountains
Mt. Elbert (highest peak in the Rockies)
North America
It is one of the longest fold mountains in the world and extends from Canada to Western US (New Mexico State)
2
Appalachian Mountains
Mt. Mitchell, North Carolina, US (highest peak of Appalachian Mountains)
North America
It is a fold mountain with rich in mineral resources
3
Alps
Mont Blanc (French –Italian border)
Europe
It is a folded mountain and source for rivers like Danube, Rhine, etc.
4
Sierra Nevada
Mt. Whitney
California, USA
Habitat for many Red Indian tribes
5
Alaska Range
Mt. McKinley
North America
Mt. McKinley highest peak in North America
6
Altai Mountains
Belukha mountain
Central Asia
Young folded mountain which extends from Kazakhstan to northern China.
7
Andes Mountains
Mt. Aconcagua
South America
Longest mountain chain in the world
8
Atlas Mountains
Mt. Toubkal
Northwestern Africa
Young fold mountain spreading over Morocco and Tunisia.
9
Drakensberg Mountains
Mt. Lesotho
South Africa
Young folded mountain
10.
Caucasus Mountain
Mt. Elbrus
Europe
Located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea
11.
Ural Mountains
Mt. Narodnaya
Russia
This mountain range act as a boundary between Europe and Asia.
12.
Hindukush Mountains
Mt. Trich Mir
Pakistan and Afghanistan
Folded mountain with rugged topography which makes it difficult for transportation.
13.
Himalayas
Mt. Everest
Asia
Young fold mountains in Asia which separates Indian sub-continent from Asian plains
14.
Arakan Yoma
Mt. Kennedy peak
Myanmar
It extends from north to south direction. Shifting cultivation is practised.
15.
Kunlun Mountains
Mt. Muztag
North of Tibetan plateau and western China
It is one of the young folded mountains.
16.
Vosges
Mt. Grand Ballon
Eastern France, Europe
Famous for the cultivation of grapes and manufacture of wines.
17.
Great Dividing Range
Mt. Kosciuszko
Australia
This range is the source for the rivers Darling and Murray.
Important Straits, Deserts and Volcanoes
Important Volcanoes, Straits and Deserts:
Vezuvias : Italy
Etna : Italy
Stromboli : Italy
Barren : India (Andaman Nicobar)
Kilimancharo : Tanzania
Krakathove : Indonesia
Pina thubo : Philippense
Ring of fire : Pacific
Lighthouse of the Pacific : Ezalko
Lighthouse of the Mediteranian : Stromboli
Important Deserts:
Fozil desert : Kalahari
Little Sahara : Australia
Death desert : Thakkala Makkan
Painted desert : North America
Coldest desert : Gobi
Warmest desert : Sahara
Driest desert : Attakkama
Great Indian desert : Thar
Roob Asavali : Asia
Attakkama : South America
Sahara : Africa
Kalahari : Africa
Nameeb : Nameebia
Great Sandy : Australia
Great Victoria : Australia
Thakkala Makkan : China
Sahel : China
Thar : India
The following table lists the major straits in the world:
Strait
Contiguous Landmass
Joining Seas/Water Bodies
Formosa Strait
China and Taiwan
The South China Sea and the East China Sea
Strait of Tartary
Russia (East Russia-Sakhalin Islands)
Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan
Yucatan Strait
Mexico and Cuba
The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea
Mesina Strait
Italy and Sicily
The Tyrrhenian Sea and the Ionian Sea, within the central Mediterranean
Otranto Strait
Italy and Albania
Adriatic Sea & Ionian Sea
Cook Strait
New Zealand
The Tasman Sea and South Pacific Ocean
Mozambique Channel
Mozambique and Madagascar
Indian Ocean
North Channel
Ireland and Scotland
Irish Sea and Atlantic Ocean
Hormuz Strait
Iran and Oman
The Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf
Bab-el-Mandeb
Djibouti, Yemen, and Eritrea of the Somali Peninsula
The Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea
Ten Degree Channel
Car Nicobar Islands and Little Andaman
Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal
Sunda Strait
Java island of Indonesia with its Sumatra island.
Java Sea and the Indian Ocean
Florida Strait
Cuba and the USA
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean
Bering Strait
Asia from America
The Arctic Ocean and East Pacific ocean
Strait of Gibraltar
Spain and Morocco
The Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea
Korea Strait
Japan and South Korea
The East China Sea and the Sea of Japan
Strait of Malacca
Malaysia and Sumatra
The Pacific Ocean to the east with the Indian Ocean to the west
Bonifacio Strait
Corsica island of France and Sardinia islands of Italy
The Tyrrhenian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea
Palk Strait
India and Sri Lanka
The Bay of Bengal in the northeast with the Palk Bay/Arabian Sea in the southwest
Prime Minister visited Bandipur Tiger Reserve in Karnataka and released the latest tiger census data marking the completion of 50 years of ‘Project Tiger’.
PM also launched the International Big Cats Alliance (IBCA). IBCA will focus on protection and conservation of seven major big cats of the world -Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Puma, Jaguar and Cheetah, with membership of the range countries.
About Project Tiger
Launched from Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand, the project is an ongoing scheme of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
The centrally sponsored scheme is applicable in nine reserves of different States, namely Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Project Tiger has been converted into a statutory authority, National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) by providing enabling provisions in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 through an amendment, via Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006. The NTCA addresses ecological and administrative concerns for conserving tigers. It provides a statutory basis for the protection of tiger reserves and provides strengthened institutional mechanisms for the protection of ecologically sensitive areas and endangered species.
Purpose of Project Tiger
The tiger is a unique animal that plays a pivotal role in the health and diversity of an ecosystem.
Predation balance: It is a top predator which is at the apex of the food chain.
Regulation of herbivores: It keeps the population of wild ungulates in check, thereby maintaining the balance between prey herbivores and the vegetation upon which they feed.
Ecosystem balance: Therefore, the presence of tigers in the forest is an indicator of the well being of the ecosystem.
Tourism: Apart from the ecological services provided by the animal, the tiger also offers direct use such as attracting tourists, which provide incomes for local communities.
Execution of the Project Tiger
Project Tiger was administered by the NTCA. The overall administration of the project is monitored by a steering committee, which is headed by a director. A field director is appointed for each reserve, who is assisted by a group of field and technical personnel.
Shivalik-Terai Conservation Unit
North-East Conservation Unit
Sunderbans Conservation Unit
Western Ghats Conservation Unit
Eastern Ghats Conservation Unit
Central India Conservation Unit
Sariska Conservation Unit
Kaziranga Conservation Unit
The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on the ‘core-buffer’ strategy:
Core Area: are free of all human activities. It has the legal status of a national park or wildlife sanctuary. It is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations like a collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and other human disturbances are not allowed within.
Buffer Areas: are subjected to ‘conservation-oriented land use’. They comprise forest and non-forest land. It is a multi-purpose use area with twin objectives of providing habitat supplement to spillover population of wild animals from the core conservation unit and providing site-specific co-developmental inputs to surrounding villages for relieving their impact on the core area.
Issues with the Project
Implementation bottlenecks: The efforts were hampered by poaching, as well as debacles and irregularities in Sariska and Namdapha, both of which were reported extensively in the Indian media.
Forest Dwellers Rights: The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 recognizes the rights of some forest-dwelling communities in forest areas. This has led to controversy over implications of such recognition for tiger conservation.
Man-Animal Conflict: Some have argued that this is problematic as it will increase conflict and opportunities for poaching; some also assert that “tigers and humans cannot co-exist”.
Abuse of Authority: Others argue that this is a limited perspective that overlooks the reality of human-tiger coexistence and the abuse of power by authorities, evicting local people and making them pariahs in their own traditional lands.
Other efforts to save Tigers
India is home to 70 percent of the global tiger population. Therefore, the country has an important role to play in tiger conservation.
[1] Project Tiger
(discussed above)
[2] CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
Besides protecting tiger territory, other measures being taken to save the tiger include: curbing wildlife trade through international agreements.
CITES is an international agreement between governments aimed at ensuring that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants, including tigers, does not threaten their survival. India ratified this treaty in 1976.
[3] Global Tiger Forum and Tiger Range Countries
Established in 1994, the Global Tiger Forum is the only inter-governmental body for tiger conservation.
Its membership includes seven tiger range countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Cambodia, Myanmar, Nepal and Vietnam.
[4] CA|TS
14 tiger reserves have been accredited under CA|TS (Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards) categories.
The CA|TS is a set of criteria that examines the management of tiger sites to gauge the success rates of tiger conservation.
[5] St. Petersburg Declaration
This resolution was adopted In November 2010, by the leaders of 13 tiger range countries (TRCs) assembled at an International Tiger Forum in St. Petersburg, Russia
It aimed at promoting a global system to protect the natural habitat of tigers and raise awareness among people on white tiger conservation.
[6] Various NGOs
International NGO members consist of World Wildlife Fund, International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), and TRAFFIC.
Several national NGOs from India and Nepal are also members.
Success of these efforts
India’s tiger population rose by 200 in the past four years to reach 3,167 in 2022, the latest tiger census data revealed.
According to the data, the tiger population was 1,411 in 2006, 1,706 in 2010, 2,226 in 2014, 2,967 in 2018 and 3,167 in 2022.
The four-year tiger census report, Status of Tigers in India, 2018 shows numbers of the big cat have increased across all landscapes.
The total count has risen to 2,967 from 2,226 in 2014 — an increase of 741 individuals (aged more than one year), or 33%, in four years.
At present, India has around 75% of tiger population and its source areas amongst the 13 tiger range countries in the world.
2.24% of country’s geographical area is spread out in 51 tiger reserves in 18 States.
Significance of Tiger Conservation
Tiger conservation is necessary for several reasons:
Ecological balance: Tigers are apex predators and help maintain the ecological balance of the ecosystem they inhabit. They help regulate the populations of prey species and maintain a balance in the food chain.
Biodiversity: Tigers are an umbrella species, meaning that their conservation can lead to the conservation of other species in their ecosystem. The presence of tigers indicates a healthy ecosystem with a diverse range of flora and fauna.
Economic benefits: Tiger conservation can provide economic benefits to local communities through eco-tourism. It can create job opportunities and generate revenue for the local economy.
Cultural significance: Tigers hold cultural significance in many societies and are considered to be symbols of power, strength, and courage.
Climate change: Tigers are indicators of the health of forests, which play a crucial role in mitigating climate change. The conservation of tigers and their habitat can help in reducing carbon emissions and combating climate change.
Various threats to Tigers
Despite measures being initiated to protect wild tigers, habitat loss and poaching continue to pose a threat to the animal’s survival.
Tiger parts are used in traditional Chinese medicines, tiger skin is used for decorative and medicinal purposes and tiger bones are again used for medicinal purposes for curing body pain, et al.
Between 2000 and 2014, TRAFFIC’s research found that parts of a minimum of 1,590 Tigers were seized in Tiger range States, an average of two Tigers per week.
Other existential threats to tigers
Poaching: Illegal hunting and poaching of tigers for their body parts and skins remains a significant threat to their survival.
Man-Animal conflict: This largely seems a normal phenomenon in India. We broadly remember the case of Tigress Avni which was finally shot dead by the forest officials in Maharashtra.
Illegal wildlife trade: The illegal trade in tiger parts, skins, and bones remains a significant threat to the survival of tigers in India and around the world.
Shrinking habitat: This often leads to territorial conflicts among the Tigers.
Issues with Tourism: Excess of tourist activities is problematic for animals. Frequent visits in reserved forests areas disrupt them to move freely for their prey.
Climate Change: The effects of climate change and floods are a major problem. The latest study by WWF shows that Sundarban which is one of the biggest home of tigers in India would sink entirely in 2070.
Way forward
The process of tiger conservation should be more dynamic and compatible with the future possibilities of climatic changes as well.
The Forest Department and the Central government can collaborate to protect the natural corridors to ensure the free movement of the tigers for better food resources.
Campaigns such as ‘Save the Tiger’ are recommended as effective measures to make people across the country and globe aware of the significance of conserving tiger species.
Sensitization of local communities against poaching is also a crucial measure in this regard.
We have to make the environment and development co-exist and go hand in hand by planning our future developmental goals in such a manner that our environmental goals are not compromised.
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