Subject: Art and Culture

Why in the News?

Archaeologists have unearthed ancient Buddhist stupas and settlement remains at Zehanpora in Baramulla, reviving Kashmir’s 2,000 year old Buddhist past. The breakthrough was aided by century old photographs preserved in a French museum, which guided modern excavations.

About the Zehanpora Discovery

• Location: Zehanpora village, Baramulla district, along the Jhelum River
• Site lies on an ancient Silk Route corridor linking Kashmir to Central Asia and Kandahar
• Excavations began in July 2025 after drone surveys, aerial mapping, and ground verification

Key Archaeological Findings

• Three Buddhist stupas
• Urban type settlement complex likely including chaityas and viharas
• Apsidal stupa architecture with pradakshina path
• Kushan era artefacts
  • Pottery shards
  • Copper objects
  • Stone walls
• Evidence of long term monastic and urban activity

Historical Significance

Gandhara Buddhist Network

• Discovery firmly links Kashmir to the Gandhara Buddhist cultural network
• Establishes Kashmir as a central hub of Buddhist learning, not a peripheral region
• Demonstrates cultural and intellectual exchange between South Asia and Central Asia

Chronological Context

• Buddhist presence in Kashmir began during Ashoka’s reign (3rd century BCE)
• Flourished under the Kushan Empire (1st to 3rd century CE)
• Kushans promoted urbanisation, trade, and Buddhism

Literary Corroboration

• Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned entering Kashmir via the Silk Route
• Zehanpora excavation provides material archaeological evidence supporting textual references

Role of French Museum Photographs

• In 2023, century old photographs showing three stupas in Baramulla were discovered
• Images validated local archaeological hypotheses
• Triggered systematic excavation and site identification

Prelims Pointers

• Zehanpora is located in Baramulla district
• Site linked to Gandhara Buddhism
• Artefacts belong mainly to Kushan period
• Apsidal stupas allow circumambulatory worship
• Discovery aided by foreign archival material

[2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:  1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.  2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics 3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition How many of the statements given above are correct?  (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister of India highlighted the thousand year survival of the Somnath Temple, marking 1,000 years since the 1026 CE attack by Mahmud of Ghazni.

Somnath Temple

• One of the 12 sacred Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva
• Revered across Hindu tradition
• Known as the Eternal Shrine due to repeated destruction and reconstruction

Location

• Prabhas Patan, near Veraval, Saurashtra region of Gujarat
• Located on the Arabian Sea coast
• At the Triveni Sangam of Kapila, Hiran, and Saraswati rivers

Historical Significance

Ancient Origins

• Mentioned in Shiva Purana
• Evidence of worship since antiquity
• Multiple reconstructions in pre medieval times

1026 CE Event

• Temple attacked and plundered by Mahmud of Ghazni
• Considered a major historical rupture in Indian history

Medieval Period

• Rebuilt by rulers such as Kumarapala of the Chaulukya dynasty
• Reconstructed under Chudasama kings
• Destroyed again during Sultanate invasions

Symbol of Resilience

• Historical records indicate the temple was destroyed six times
• Rebuilt after every destruction
• Became a symbol of civilisational continuity and faith

Architectural Features

• Built in Chaulukya or Solanki style
• Prominent shikhara and richly carved stone walls
• Garbhagriha houses the Jyotirlinga
• Famous inscription stating no landmass lies between Somnath and the South Pole, symbolising cosmic alignment

Modern Reconstruction

Post Independence Revival

• Reconstruction initiated in 1947
• Led by Vallabhbhai Patel as a civilisational responsibility
• Designed by architect Prabhashankar Sompura using traditional methods

Inauguration

• Inaugurated on 11 May 1951
• By Rajendra Prasad
• Despite the political debates of the period

Present Management

• Managed by the Somnath Trust
• Trust is chaired by the Prime Minister of India

[2022] The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the following statements are correct regarding Somnath Temple?  1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines.  2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-Biruni 3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of the present-day temple) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan.  Select the correct answer using the code given below:  (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Why in the News? 

The Prime Minister Narendra Modi highlighted Narsapuram Lace Craft in Man Ki Baat as a model of women led economic empowerment and cultural continuity. The craft’s Geographical Indication tag has renewed national attention.

What it is

• A traditional handmade crochet lace craft
  • Fine threads are transformed into intricate lace using a single crochet hook
  • Known for high precision, patience and skill

Region

• Andhra Pradesh
  • Districts: West Godavari and Dr B R Ambedkar Konaseema
  • Key centres: Narsapur, Palacole, Razole, Amalapuram

History

• Introduced in 1844 by European missionaries who trained local women
  • Withstood famines and economic depressions
  • Sustained women’s livelihoods across generations
  • Evolved into a globally recognised hand crafted textile tradition

Key Characteristics

• Raw materials: Fine cotton threads, also silk, rayon and synthetic yarns
  • Tools: Crochet hooks of different sizes for varied textures
  • Technique: Manual looping and interlocking of stitches without machinery
  • Design motifs: Floral, paisley and geometric patterns inspired by nature
  • Products: Garments, doilies, bedspreads, table linen, cushion covers, stoles and wall hangings

Significance

• Provides regular income to thousands of women
  • Strengthens women’s role as primary earners in households
  • Preserves an indigenous textile heritage
  • GI tag enhances market recognition and cultural protection

Prelims Pointers

• Type: Handmade crochet lace
  • Origin year: 1844
  • Nature: Women centric livelihood craft
  • Legal status: GI tagged traditional craft
  • Cultural relevance: Godavari region heritage

[2018] Consider the following pairs:      Craft                        :  Heritage of  1. Puthukkuli shawls : Tamil Nadu  2. Sujni embroidery : Maharashtra  3. Uppada Jamdani saris : Karnataka  Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?  (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister Narendra Modi lauded INSV Kaundinya as it embarked on its maiden voyage from Porbandar to Muscat, highlighting India’s ancient maritime traditions.

About INSV Kaundinya

• A heritage sailing vessel of the Indian Navy
  • Built using the ancient Indian stitched ship technique
  • Constructed without iron nails, wooden planks stitched together with coir rope
  • Inspired by shipbuilding traditions mentioned in ancient Indian texts and coastal practices
  • Named after Kaundinya, an ancient Indian mariner linked to early maritime voyages

Stitched Ship Technique

• One of the oldest shipbuilding methods in the world
  • Practiced along India’s western coastline in ancient times
  • Provided flexibility and strength for long ocean voyages
  • Evidence found in Harappan seals, Ajanta murals, and classical literature

Significance

• Showcases India’s rich maritime history
  • Reinforces historical India Gulf links
  • Promotes indigenous knowledge systems
  • Enhances naval heritage awareness

Prelims Pointers

• Type: Heritage sailing vessel
  • Technique: Stitched ship construction
  • Built by: Indian artisans with Indian Navy support
  • Diplomatic relevance: India Oman historical maritime ties

[2011] India maintained its early cultural contacts and trade links with Southeast Asia across the Bay of Bengal. For this pre-eminence of early maritime history of Bay of Bengal, which of the following could be the most convincing explanation/explanations?  (a) As compared to other countries, India had better ship-building technology in ancient and medieval times.  (b) The rulers of southern India always patronised traders, brahmin priests and Buddhist monks in this context.  (c) Monsoon winds across the Bay of Bengal facilitated sea voyages.  (d) Both (a) and (b)

 Why in the News?

The Department of Posts successfully transported a priceless Thanjavur painting of Shri Ram from Bengaluru to Ayodhya using its Logistics Post service.

About Thanjavur Painting

• A classical South Indian painting tradition that originated in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, around 1600 AD
  • Also known as Tanjore paintings
  • Traditionally painted on wooden panels called palagai padam
  • Flourished under the Nayakas of Thanjavur
  • Awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag

Materials and Technique

• Base prepared using canvas pasted on wooden planks
  • Wooden boards commonly made from jackfruit or teak wood
  • Binding medium includes Arabic gum

Prelims Pointers

• Thanjavur paintings are panel paintings, not mural paintings
  • Gold foil and embossed gesso work are defining features
  • Originated in early modern South India, not ancient period
  • GI tag helps protect traditional knowledge and artisans

Kalamkari painting refers to: (2015) (a) a hand-painted cotton textile in South India  (b) a handmade drawing on bamboo handicrafts in North-East India  (c) a block-painted woollen cloth in Western Himalayan region of India  (d) a hand-painted decorative silk cloth in North-Western India

Why in the News?

A Sikh Nagar Kirtan or religious procession in South Auckland, New Zealand, was recently protested through the performance of a traditional haka dance.

About Haka Dance

• Haka is a traditional ceremonial dance of the Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand.
• It is characterised by vigorous movements, rhythmic stamping, hand gestures, and chanting.
• A key feature is pūkana, which refers to intense facial expressions including widened eyes and protruding tongue.
• Haka is not a single dance. It varies by tribe (iwi) and region, with each haka often narrating stories of ancestry, warfare, achievements, or important historical events.

Global Recognition

• Gained worldwide fame after being adopted as a pre match ritual by New Zealand’s national rugby team, the All Blacks, in the early 20th century.
• In November 2024, haka drew global attention when two lawmakers performed it inside the New Zealand Parliament to protest against a proposed bill.

Prelims Pointers

• Haka is not always a war dance. It also conveys respect, mourning, and celebration.
  • It is a key expression of intangible cultural heritage of the Māori people.
  • Facial expressions and vocalisation are as important as physical movements.

With reference to the famous Sattriya dance, consider the following statements: (2024) 1. Sattriya is a combination of music, dance and drama.  2. It is a centuries-old living tradition of Vaishnavites of Assam.  3. It is based on classical Ragas and Talas of devotional songs composed by Tulsidas, Kabir and Mirabai.  Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court of India declined an urgent hearing of a plea challenging the practice of state sponsored ceremonial honours or offering a Chadar by the Prime Minister at the Dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer.

Who was Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti?

• One of the most revered Sufi saints of India
• Popularly known as Gharīb Nawāz meaning Benefactor of the Poor
• Born in 1141 CE in Sistan (Persia)
• Studied Islamic theology in Samarkand and Bukhara
• Follower of Sunni Hanafi school
• Disciple of Khwaja Usman Harooni

Arrival and Life in India

• Came to India around 1192 AD
• Settled in Ajmer
• Contemporary of Prithviraj Chauhan and Iltutmish
• Established a Khanqah to serve the poor and needy

Contribution to Indian History

• Introduced the Chishti Order of Sufism in India
• Preached: Love and compassion, Religious tolerance, Charity and service and Detachment from materialism.

Death and Dargah

• Died in 1236 CE
• Buried in Ajmer
• His tomb is known as Ajmer Sharif Dargah
• One of the most important pilgrimage centres in India

With reference to the religious history of medieval India, the Sufi mystics were known to pursue which of the following practices? (2012) 1. Meditation and control of breath  2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place  3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience  Select the correct answer using the code given below:  (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Why in the News?

The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) organised an academic programme titled Natyashastra Synthesis of Theory and Praxis during the 20th Session of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage at the Red Fort, Delhi.

About Natyashastra

• Ancient Sanskrit treatise on performing arts
• Title derived from Natya meaning dance and drama and Shastra meaning science
• Composed by sage Bharata Muni
• Dated between 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE
• Considered the earliest known treatise on performative arts in South Asia

Core Themes of Natyashastra

• Covers drama (natya), performance (abhinaya), music (sangita), emotion (bhava) and aesthetic experience (rasa)
• Comprises around 36,000 verses
• Justifies Indian drama as a medium of religious and moral enlightenment

Global Recognition

• Included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register
• Recognised for its outstanding global cultural value

About Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
• An autonomous institution under the Ministry of Culture, Government of India

Mandate of IGNCA

• Documentation, preservation and dissemination of Indian arts and cultural heritage
• Training of professionals in cultural studies

Which one of the following is a work attributed to playwright Bhāsa? (2024) (a) Kavyaalankara  (b) Natyashasta  (c) Madhyama-vyoga  (d) Mahabhashya

Why in the News?

A commemorative postage stamp honouring Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II was recently released by the Vice President of India, highlighting his importance in early medieval South Indian history.

About Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar

• Reign period: c. 705 AD to 745 AD
• Also known as Suvaran Maran and Shatrubhayankar
• Belonged to the Mutharaiyar lineage of Tamil Nadu
• Known as a brave warrior, able administrator, and patron of learning
• Fought alongside Pallava king Nandivarman II in several battles
• Represents the phase of powerful Pallava feudatories gaining autonomy

Religious and Cultural Patronage

• Patron of Shaivism
• Jain monk Vimalachandra visited his court for religious and philosophical debates
• Reflects religious tolerance and intellectual exchange

Who were the Mutharaiyars

• A prominent chieftain clan of early medieval Tamil Nadu
• Served as feudatories of the Pallava dynasty
• Gained political prominence as Pallava authority weakened
• Eventually ruled as independent regional powers

Territorial Influence

• Dominated regions along the Cauvery river basin
• Key areas: Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, Perambalur, Tiruchirappalli
• Controlled fertile agrarian zones and cultural centres

Architectural Contributions

• Renowned temple builders under Pallava influence
• Major contributors to rock cut cave temples
• Cave temple activity continued till the early ninth century
• Acted as a link between Pallava and early Chola architecture

Consider the following events in the history of India: (2020) (1) Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja (2) Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman – I (3) Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka – I (4) Pala dynasty founded by Gopala What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time? (a) 2 – 1 – 4 – 3 (b) 3 – 1 – 4 – 2 (c) 2 – 4 – 1 – 3 (d) 3 – 4 – 1 – 2

Why in the News?

The Bison Horn Maria dance of the Dandami Madia tribe was highlighted during recent village festivals in Jagdalpur, Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, showcasing the living tribal cultural heritage of central India.

Dandami Madia Tribe

• Also known as Maria
• Sub group of the Gond tribe
• Inhabits Bastar region of southern Chhattisgarh
• Major areas: Darbha, Tokapal, Lohandiguda and Dantewada
• Traditionally forest dependent community
• Livelihood, rituals and beliefs closely linked to nature
• Cultural roots trace back to the historic Gondwana region

Bison Horn Maria Dance

• One of the most distinctive tribal dances of India
• Performed by both men and women
• Symbolises hunting traditions, village rituals and harmony with nature
• Men wear horn shaped headgear made of bamboo decorated with bison horns, feathers, shells and coloured cloth
• Bead necklaces and brass anklets are integral to male attire
• Women wear handwoven saris, heavy silver and brass ornaments
• Jewellery often includes rupee coins ranging from ₹1 to ₹10
• Musical instruments include drums and bamboo flutes

Prelims Pointers

• Dandami Madia are part of the Gond tribal group
• Bastar region is a major hub of tribal art, dance and ritual traditions
• Bison Horn Maria dance is both a ritualistic and cultural performance
• Reflects India’s intangible cultural heritage preserved through oral tradition and practice

Consider the following pairs: Tribe → State (2013) (1). Limboo (Limbu) : Sikkim (2). Karbi : Himachal Pradesh (3). Dongaria Kondh : Odisha (4). Bonda : Tamil Nadu Which of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4