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Subject: Climate Change

1. Global Warming and Issues
2. All about Pollution

  • What is Irrecoverable Carbon?

    Researchers have identified and mapped 139 gigatonnes (Gt) of “irrecoverable carbon” in some of the world’s major forests and peatlands — including the Amazon and the Congo — to avoid catastrophic climate change.

    What is Irrecoverable Carbon?

    • The concept of ‘irrecoverable carbon’ was introduced in 2020.
    • All kinds of ecosystems — lush rainforest, muddy peatland, shady mangroves — contain eons of stored carbon, captured by photosynthesis.
    • Per square kilometer, the forests are among the most effective carbon stores in the world; but they’re also some of the most difficult to restore.
    • If destroyed, these ecosystems could take decades or centuries to regenerate.
    • In other words, the 139 gigatons of carbon contained in these areas are effectively irrecoverable if released due to anthropogenic activities.
    • Once released in air, it can be recovered but would take centuries to fully recover or naturally reintegrate.

    What is the new research?

    • In the new study, researchers have identified and mapped carbon reserves that are “manageable, are vulnerable to disturbance” and cannot be recovered by 2050.
    • They held study of peatlands of the Congo Basin and Northern Europe; and in North America, the mangrove swamps of the Everglades and old-growth forests of the Pacific Northwest.
    • 2050 has been set as the deadline for taking global carbon emissions to net zero in order for Earth to avoid warming at 1.5-2 degrees celsius above the pre-industrial levels.
    • To mitigate such a warming scenario, it is imperative to conserve the ecosystems with 139 Gt carbon.

    Key findings

    • Amazon is the biggest carbon sink on earth, holding 31.5 Gt irrecoverable carbon.
    • Brazil has the second-largest irrecoverable carbon reserves, after Russia that holds 23 per cent of the total irrecoverable carbon outlay in the world.
    • The second-largest reserve of carbon, at 132 Gt, comprise the islands of Southeast Asia, with their equatorial rainforests.
    • The Congo basin is the third-largest hotspot of irrecoverable carbon with over 8 Gt of carbon reserves, according to the study.
    • Australia, which has become a hotspot for wildfires, is home to 2.5 per cent of the world’s carbon reserve along its coastal mangroves and forests in the southeast and southwest.

    Why conserve these forests?

    • These regions are already being ravaged by wildfires and exploited for resources by mining and oil industries.
    • Since 2010, agriculture, logging and wildfire have caused emissions of at least 4 Gt of irrecoverable carbon.

     

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  • India votes against Resolution on Climate Change at UNSC

    India has voted against a draft resolution at the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) linking climate to security.

    About United Nations Security Council

    • The UNSC is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security.
    • Its powers include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions.
    • It is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states.

    Its members

    • The Security Council consists of fifteen members. Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, and the United States—serve as the body’s five permanent members (P5).
    • These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General.
    • The Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms.
    • The body’s presidency rotates monthly among its members.

    What was the recent draft about?

    • The objective of the draft was to examine how terrorism and security risks could be linked to climate change.

    Reasons cited by India

    • Deviation from UNFCCC: The draft was an attempt to shift climate talks from the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to the Security Council and a “step backward” for collective action on the issue.
    • Evasion of responsibility: The attempt to discuss climate action and climate justice issues at the UNSC was “motivated by a desire to evade responsibility in the appropriate forum.”
    • Veto hegemony over Climate Action: Countries are attempting to bring climate talks to the UNSC so that decisions could be taken without consensus or the involvement of most developing countries.
    • Historic pollutants: Many of the UNSC members were the primary contributors to climate change due to historical emissions.
    • Overtly ambitious targets: Indian officials had said at the conclusion of COP26 that India alone would need a trillion dollars by 2030 to achieve its climate ambitions.

    Significance of UNFCC

    • The UN already has a specialized agency, the UNFCCC, for discussing all matters related to climate change.
    • The parties to the UNFCCC — over 190 countries — meet several times every year, including at a two-week year-ending conference like the one at Glasgow, to work on a global approach to combat climate change.
    • It is this process that has given rise to the Paris Agreement, and its predecessor the Kyoto Protocol, the international instrument that is designed to respond to the climate change crisis.

    Arguments in favor of UNSC in climate talks

    • Preventing conflicts: The UNSC exists primarily to prevent conflicts and maintain global peace.
    • International security: A few EU countries, led by Germany, have been pushing for a role for UNSC in climate change discussions citing international security dimensions.
    • Climate-led conflicts: Climate change-induced food or water shortage, loss of habitat or livelihood, or migration can exacerbate existing conflicts or even create new ones.
    • UN Peacekeeping: This can have implications for the UN field missions that are deployed across the world in peacekeeping efforts.

    Issues with UNSC

    • Veto by Russia and China: These two permanent members have always been opposed to the move to bring climate change on the Security Council agenda.
    • Lack of expertise: The opposing countries claim that the UNSC does not have the expertise as compared to UNFCCC.
    • Lack of consensus: Unlike UNFCCC, where decisions are taken by consensus of all the 190-plus countries, the UNSC would enable climate change decision-making by a handful of developed countries.

    India is in highlight again

    • This was the second time that India went against the tide to block a climate change-related proposal that it did not agree with.
    • At the Glasgow COP, India had forced a last-minute amendment in the final draft agreement to ensure that a provision calling for “phase-out” of coal was changed to “phase-down”.

     

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  • [pib] Global Methane Initiative (GMI)

    India has co-chaired along with Canada the Global Methane Initiative leadership meet held virtually.

    About Methane

    • Methane is a greenhouse gas, which is also a component of natural gas.
    • There are various sources of methane including human and natural sources.
    • The anthropogenic sources are responsible for 60 per cent of global methane emissions.
    • It includes landfills, oil and natural gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, wastewater treatment, and certain industrial processes.
    • The oil and gas sectors are among the largest contributors to human sources of methane.
    • These emissions come primarily from the burning of fossil fuels, decomposition in landfills and the agriculture sector.

    Global Methane Initiative (GMI)

    • GMI is a voluntary Government and an informal international partnership having members from 45 countries including the United States and Canada.
    • The forum has been created to achieve global reduction in anthropogenic methane emission through partnership among developed and developing countries having economies in transition.
    • The forum was created in 2004 and India is one of the members since its inception and has taken up Vice-Chairmanship for the first time in the Steering Leadership along with USA.
    • National governments are encouraged to join GMI as Partner Countries, while other non-State organizations may join GMI’s extensive Project Network.

    Focus areas

    The initiative currently focuses on five sectors, which are known sources of anthropogenic methane emissions:

    1. Agriculture
    2. Coal mining
    3. Municipal solid waste
    4. Municipal wastewater
    5. Oil and gas systems

    Why focus on Methane?

    • The emission of methane is a big concern as it is a greenhouse gas having 25-28 times harmful effect than carbon dioxide
    • According to the UN, 25 % of the warming that the world is experiencing today is because of methane.
    • Methane is the second-most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, after carbon dioxide.
    • According to IPCC, methane accounts for about half of the 1.0 degrees Celsius net rise in global average temperature since the pre-industrial era.

    Back2Basics: CO2 Equivalents

    • Each greenhouse gas (GHG) has a different global warming potential (GWP) and persists for a different length of time in the atmosphere.
    • The three main greenhouse gases (along with water vapour) and their 100-year global warming potential (GWP) compared to carbon dioxide are:

    1 x – carbon dioxide (CO2)

    25 x – methane (CH4) – I.e. Releasing 1 kg of CH4into the atmosphere is about equivalent to releasing 25 kg of CO2

    298 x – nitrous oxide (N2O)

    • Water vapour is not considered to be a cause of man-made global warming because it does not persist in the atmosphere for more than a few days.
    • There are other greenhouse gases which have far greater global warming potential (GWP) but are much less prevalent. These are sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
    • There are a wide variety of uses for SF6, HFCs, and PFCs but they have been most commonly used as refrigerants and for fire suppression.
    • Many of these compounds also have a depleting effect on ozone in the upper atmosphere.

     

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  • Radioactive Pollution in Water

    Radioactive pollution of water is newly emerging but is of grave concern for water pollution and human health.

    Quick recap: Radioactivity

    • Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous emission of particles or waves from the unstable nuclei of some elements.
    • There are three types of radioactive emissions: Alpha, Beta and Gamma.
    • Alpha particles are positively charged He atoms, beta particles are negatively charged electrons and gamma rays are neutral electromagnetic radiations.
    • Radioactive elements are naturally found in the earth’s crust.

    Radioactive contamination of Water

    • Natural: Percolation of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) from the soil sediments to the aquifer causes groundwater contamination.
    • Man-made: Anthropogenic sources of such pollution include- nuclear weapon investigation, nuclear calamities, nuclear powerhouses and dumping of radioactive waste.

    Various contaminant elements

    • Uranium, thorium and actinium are three NORM series that contaminate water resources.
    • A number of radionuclides are found in surface and subsurface waters, among which 3H, 14C, 40K, 210Pb, 210Po, 222Rn, 226Ra, 228Ra, 232Th and 234,235,238U are common.
    • Strontium-90, Caesium-137, etc are also formed by nuclear reactors, along with numerous unnecessary radioisotopes wastes.
    • 40K and 7Be are the most commonly found radioactive elements in the sludge generated in sewage treatment plants.
    • Nuclear reactors produce radioisotopes (Cobalt-60, Iridium-192, etc) that hand out as sources of gamma radiation in radiotherapy and numerous industrial appliances.

    Oceanic sources

    • Oceans and seas are the natural repositories of naturally occurring uranium. It is found in the form of uranyl carbonate ion.
    • A significant concentration of uranium is supposed to be found in the greater salinity of the marine water.
    • 40K (Radioactive Potassium) is also found in considerable concentration in the marine environment.

    Measuring radioactive pollution

    • Radioactivity is measured in Becquerel (SI unit) or in Curie.
    • Energy absorbed per unit mass is measured by Gray, while the unit Sievert measures the quantity of radiation absorbed by human tissues.
    • A small amount of radiation is found in all types of water but the extended amount of radiation is harmful to human health.
    • Radioactivity in drinking water can be determined by a gross alpha test.

    Hazards of such pollution

    • Radioactive elements have an effect on the environment and can cause a risk to human healthiness if inhaled, injected or exposed.
    • Human tissues absorb radiation through polluted water and foodstuff, which can cause serious health risks.
    • High doses of radiation can cause acute radiation syndrome or cutaneous radiation injury.
    • Exposure to radiation causes various disorders in human physiology, including cancer, leukaemia, genetic mutations, osteonecrosis, cataracts and chromosomal disruption.

     

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  • Emission caused by Nuclear Energy

    Supporters of the Nuclear Energy source say that it is a climate-friendly way to generate electricity. However, this is subjected to various considerations often not discussed.

    Why focus on Nuclear Energy?

    • The main factors for its choice were reliability and security of supply.
    • The latest figures on global carbon dioxide emissions call into question the world’s efforts to tackle the climate crisis.

    Soaring CO2 emissions

    • CO2 emissions are set to soar 4.9% in 2021, compared with the previous year, according to a study published earlier this month by the Global Carbon Project (GCP), a group of scientists that track emissions.
    • In 2020, emissions dropped 5.4% due to the COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdowns.
    • The energy sector continues to be the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, with a share of 40% — and rising.

    Is nuclear power a zero-emissions energy source?

    No. Nuclear energy is also responsible for greenhouse gas emissions.

    • Uranium mining: Uranium extraction, transport and processing produces emissions.
    • Construction of power plants: The long and complex construction process of nuclear power plants also releases CO2, as does the demolition of decommissioned sites.
    • Nuclear waste and its transportation: This also has to be transported and stored under strict conditions — here, too, emissions must be taken into account.
    • Water consumption: Power plants depend on nearby water sources to cool their reactors, and with many rivers drying up, those sources of water are no longer guaranteed.

    How much CO2 does nuclear power produce?

    • Results vary significantly, depending on whether we only consider the process of electricity generation, or take into account the entire life cycle of a nuclear power plant.
    • A report released in 2014 by the IPCC estimated a range of 3.7 to 110 grams of CO2 equivalent per kilowatt-hour (kWh).
    • It’s long been assumed that nuclear plants generate an average of 66 grams of CO2/kWh.

    How climate-friendly is nuclear compared to other energies?

    • If the entire life cycle, nuclear energy certainly comes out ahead of fossil fuels like coal or natural gas.
    • But the picture is drastically different when compared with renewable energy.
    • Nuclear power releases 3.5 times more CO2 per kilowatt-hour than photovoltaic solar panel systems.
    • Compared with onshore wind power, that figure jumps to 13 times more CO2.
    • When up against electricity from hydropower installations, nuclear generates 29 times more carbon.

    Can we rely on nuclear energy to help stop global warming?

    • Around the world, nuclear energy representatives, as well as some politicians, have called for the expansion of atomic power.
    • Other countries have also supported plans to build new nuclear plants, arguing that the energy sector will be even more damaging for the climate without it.

    Feasibility of Nuclear Energy

    • High cost of construction: Due to the high costs associated with nuclear energy, it also blocks important financial resources that could instead be used to develop renewable energy.
    • Renewables are better: Those renewables would provide more energy that is both faster and cheaper than nuclear.
    • High water consumption: During the world’s increasingly hot summers, several nuclear power plants have already had to be temporarily shut down due to water scarcity.

    Conclusion

    • Taking into account the current overall energy system, nuclear energy is by no means CO2 neutral.
    • The contribution of nuclear energy is viewed too optimistically.
    • In reality construction, times are too long and the costs too high to have a noticeable effect on climate change. It takes too long for nuclear energy to become available.

     

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  • India, while moving to renewable energy needs to focus on sustainable well-being

    Context

    With current per capita emissions that are less than half the global average, India’s pledge to reach ‘net zero’ emissions by 2070 has cemented India’s credentials as a global leader.

    Implication of net-zero by 2070

    • The political implication of the date 2070 is that the world should get to ‘net-zero’ by 2050.
    • For that, the rich countries will need to do more and step up closer to their share of the carbon budget.
    • India’s stand also signals that it will not act under external pressure, as requiring equal treatment is the hallmark of a global power, and will have an impact on other issues.

    How focus on coal harms developing countries

    • The subject of oil was not touched at COP26, even as automobile emissions are the fastest growing emissions, because it is a defining feature of western civilisation.
    • Most abundant source of energy: Coal is the most abundant energy source, essential for base load in electrification, and the production of steel and cement.
    • Its use declines after the saturation level of infrastructure is reached.
    • Declining role of G-7 in rule setting: That India and China working together forced the G7 to make a retraction has signalled the coming of a world order in which the G7 no longer sets the rules.
    • Specific language on finance and adaptation: After 40 years there is more specific language on both finance and adaptation finally recognising that costs and near-term effects of climate change will hit the poorest countries hardest.

    Feasibility of the goal of ‘net-zero’ by 2070

    • Seeing the challenge in terms of the scale and the speed of the transformation of the energy system assumes that India will follow the pathway of western civilisation.
    • Transition to electrification: India is urbanising as it is industrialising, moving directly to electrification, renewable energy and electric vehicles, and a digital economy instead of a focus on the internal combustion engine.
    • Most of the infrastructure required has still to be built and automobiles are yet to be bought.
    • Investment vs. incurring cost: India will not be replacing current systems and will be making investments, not incurring costs.

    Challenge for the West

    • The consumption of affluent households both determines and accelerates an increase of emissions of carbon dioxide.
    • This is followed by socio-economic factors such as mobility and dwelling size.
    • In the West, these drivers have overridden the beneficial effects of changes in technology reflected in the material footprint and related greenhouse-gas emissions.
    • The West has yet to come out with a clear strategy of how it will remain within the broad contours of its carbon budget.
    • And increasing inequality and a rise of protectionism and trade barriers imposing new standards need to be anticipated.
    • This knowledge is essential for national policy as well as the next round of climate negotiations.

    Way forward for India

    • Climate change has to be addressed by the West by reducing consumption, not just greening it.
    • Shifting the consumption pattern: Consumption patterns need to be ‘shifted away from resource and carbon-intensive goods and services, e.g. mobility from cars and aircraft to buses and trains.
    • Reducing the carbon intensity: Along with’ reducing demand, resource and carbon intensity of consumption has to decrease, e.g. expanding renewable energy, electrifying cars and public transport and increasing energy and material efficiency’.
    • Equal distribution of wealth and affordable energy use: Equally important, will be achieving a’ more equal distribution of wealth with a minimum level of prosperity and affordable energy use for all’, e.g., housing and doing away with biomass for cooking.
    • Focused research group: The Government now needs to set up focused research groups for the conceptual frame of sustainable well-being.
    • It should analyse the drivers of affluent overconsumption and circulate synthesis of the literature identifying reforms of the economic systems as well as studies that show how much energy we really need for a decent level of well-being.

    Role for legislature

    • Fundamental duty: After the Stockholm Declaration on the Global Environment, the Constitution was amended in 1976 to include Protection and Improvement of Environment as a fundamental duty.
    • Use of provision under Article 253: Parliament used Article 253 to enact the Environment Protection Act to implement the decisions reached at the Stockholm Conference.
    • Enabling new set of legislation: The decisions at COP26 enable a new set of legislation around ecological limits, energy and land use, including the efficient distribution and use of electricity, urban design and a statistical system providing inputs for sustainable well-being.

    Consider the question “Examine the feasibility of India’s ‘net-zero’ target by 2070, also suggest the way forward for India to achieve the target by focusing on sustainable well being”

    Conclusion

    For India, in parallel with the infrastructure and clean technology thrust, the focus on a decent living standard leads to behavioural change in the end-use service, such as mobility, shelter and nutrition — for change modifying wasteful trends.

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  • Places in news: Majuli River Island

    Soil erosion, coupled with changing climatic conditions, has been writing a cruel destiny for the inhabitants of Majuli in Assam, the largest river island in the world.

    About Majuli Island

    • Majuli is a riverine island in the Brahmaputra River, Assam and in 2016 it became the first island to be made a district in India.
    • Majuli has shrunk as the river surrounding it has grown.
    • It had an area of 880 square kilometers (340 sq mi) at the beginning of the 20th century but having lost significantly to erosion it covers 553 square kilometers as at 2014.
    • It is the abode of the Assamese neo-Vaishnavite culture.

    Its formation

    • The island is formed by the Brahmaputra River in the south and the Kherkutia Xuti, an anabranch of the Brahmaputra, joined by the Subansiri River in the north.
    • It was formed due to course changes by the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries, mainly the Lohit.

     

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  • The heavy lifting on climate action must begin

    Context

    Glasgow’s success was that it finished building the scaffolding for climate action initiated through the Paris Agreement. But true success depends on whether countries are receptive to these nudges.

    What were the Glasgow climate meeting’s (COP26) successes and failures?

    • Strengthened Paris Agreement mechanism: Glasgow strengthened the Paris Agreement mechanism of eliciting pledges from countries and ratcheting them up over time.
    • It requested countries to update and strengthen 2030 emission targets in their NDCs by the end of 2022, earlier than previously expected.
    • Success at Glasgow was explicitly defined around ‘keeping 1.5 degrees alive’ through such pledges.
    • There are two problems with this interpretation.
    • First, the Paris, and Glasgow, approach focusing on target-setting gives insufficient importance to the challenge of implementing those targets.
    • A focus on shorter term targets and their implementation — which India to its credit has been highlighting — will be important.
    • Second, by calling on countries to strengthen targets to align with the Paris Agreement objectives without explicitly considering that countries have different roles and responsibilities in doing so risks side-stepping, again, the long-standing issue of climate equity.

    Phase-down clause for thermal power and implications for India

    • Phasing down coal power: A specific high profile clause calls for the ‘phase down of unabated coal power and phase out of inefficient fossil fuel subsidies’.
    • It was the Indian Minister who read out an amendment modifying ‘phase-out’ to ‘phase-down’ for coal.
    • India’s concerns: India’s real concerns included not precluding subsidies for social purposes, such as for cooking gas; querying whether from an equity point of view, all countries should be asked to limit coal use at the same time; and noting the lack of mention of oil and gas.
    • A positive for all from environmental point of view: From an environmental point of view, more explicit discussion of coal, but ideally all fossil fuels, is a positive, including for India.
    • Concerns on developmental view: From a developmental view, however, India is concerned that explicit mention of coal constrains us in our choice of fuel.
    • Way out for India: A possible way out is for India to explicitly seek global support for an accelerated transition away from coal, an approach taken by South Africa.

    Challenges and achievements at COP26

    [A] Measures for adaptations

    • Adaptation has long been neglected in global negotiations, reflecting a global power imbalance that places less weight on the concerns of vulnerable nations.
    • In this context, it was a partial win that Glasgow set up an explicit two year work programme for a ‘global goal’ on adaptation.
    • No development on agenda of loss and damage: The important complementary agenda of ‘loss and damage’ – compensating for unavoidable impacts that go beyond adaptation — received at most lip service.
    • Even though there was discussion of a specific mechanism, backed by funding, to the dismay of small, vulnerable nations, only a ‘dialogue’ was established.

    [B] Climate finance commitment issue not addressed

    • Commitment on climate finance not met: Climate finance promised to be the central issue of COP26, with considerable frustration from developing countries that the decade-long commitment of $100 billion had not been met.
    • Glasgow did no more than establish a work programme on post-2025 financing and continue tracking progress on the $100 billion.
    • The exception was a call to double adaptation finance by 2025.
    • Mobilising private finance: Former Bank of England Governor Mark Carney indicated that companies committed to net zero initiatives could marshal a scarcely believable $130 trillion, suggesting growing efforts to mobilise private finance.
    • Developing countries have long insisted that publicly funded climate finance is a right devolving from the ‘polluter pays’ principle rather than aid.

    [C] Paris rulebook

    • Completion of two elements of Paris Rulebook: There were two particularly important elements of what is called the ‘Paris Rulebook’ that were completed in Glasgow.
    • Transparency framework: First, the transparency framework was completed, which includes reporting rules and formats for emissions, progress on pledges and finance contributions.
    • Rules for carbon market: The second key was completion of agreed rules for carbon markets, the complexities of which had stymied agreement for four years.
    • Rules were put in place to limit the scope for ‘double-counting’ of credits by more than one country.

    Way forward for India

    • The real determinant of success or failure rests on national politics and popular support for climate change within countries — how countries use the scaffolding.
    • For India, these politics are complex because they revolve around simultaneously balancing concerns over whether our policy space will be limited by inequities embedded in the global mitigation efforts, and our own interests as a vulnerable country in enhancing and accelerating climate action.
    • A balanced view requires consideration of both objectives.

    Consider the question “Why climate finance continues to be a contentious issue in the negotiations over climate change? Suggest the way to balance the concerns over development with the efforts at climate action.”

    Conclusion

    The meeting hit many, but not all, of its procedural benchmarks by building scaffolding for the future. But the real determinant of success or failure rests on national politics and popular support for climate change within countries.

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  • Why Glasgow Climate Pact disappoints

    Context

    The Glasgow Climate Pact was adopted on Saturday and, as was to be expected, it is a mixed bag of modest achievements and disappointed expectations.

    Transition away from fossil fuel

    • The Pact is the first clear recognition of the need to transition away from fossil fuels, though the focus was on giving up coal-based power altogether.
    • India introduced an amendment at the last moment to replace this phrase with “phase down” and this played negatively with both the advanced as well as a large constituency of developing countries.
    • This amendment reportedly came as a result of consultations among India, China, the UK and the US.
    • As the largest producer and consumer of coal and coal-based thermal power, it is understandable that China would prefer a gradual reduction rather than total elimination.
    • India may have had similar concerns.

    Recognition of Adaptation

    • There is a welcome recognition of the importance of Adaptation and there is a commitment to double the current finance available for this to developing countries.
    • Since this amount is currently only $15 billion, doubling will mean $ 30 billion.
    • This remains grossly inadequate.
    • According to UNEP, adaptation costs for developing countries are currently estimated at $70 billion annually and will rise to an estimated $130-300 billion annually by 2030.
    • A start is being made in formulating an adaptation plan and this puts the issue firmly on the Climate agenda, balancing the overwhelming focus hitherto on mitigation.

    Disappointment on the issue of finance

    • The Paris Agreement target of $100 billion per annum between 2005-2020 was never met with the shortfall being more than half, according to some calculations.
    • There is now a renewed commitment to delivering on this pledge in the 2020-2025 period and there is a promise of an enhanced flow thereafter.
    • But in a post-pandemic global economic slowdown, it is unlikely these promises will be met.
    • In any event, it is unlikely that India will get even a small slice of the pie.
    • The same applies to the issue of compensation for loss and damage for developing countries who have suffered as a result of climate change for which they have not been responsible.

    Initiatives on methane and deforestation

    • Two important plurilateral outcomes could potentially develop into more substantial measures.
    • The most important is an agreement among 100 countries to cut methane emissions by 30 per cent by 2030.
    • India is not a part of this group.
    • Cutting methane emissions, which is generated mainly by livestock, is certainly useful but there is a much bigger methane emergency around the corner as the earth’s permafrost areas in Siberia, Greenland and the Arctic littoral begin to melt due to global warming that has already taken place and will continue to take place in the coming years.
    • Another group of 100 countries has agreed to begin to reverse deforestation by 2030.
    • India did not join the group due to concerns over a clause on possible trade measures related to forest products.

    Implications of US-China Joint Declaration on Climate Change for India

    • Declaration was a departure for China, which had held that bilateral cooperation on climate change could not be insulated from other aspects of their relations.
    • The declaration implies a shift in China’s hardline position.
    • It appears both countries are moving towards a less confrontational, more cooperative relationship overall.
    • This will have geopolitical implications, including for India, which may find its room for manoeuvre shrinking.

    Conclusion

    As in the past, the can has been kicked down the road, except that the climate road is fast approaching a dead-end. What provides a glimmer of light is the incredible and passionate advocacy of urgent action by young people across the world. This is putting enormous pressure on governments and leaders and if sustained, may become irresistible.

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  • Glasgow Climate Pact (COP26)

    The Glasgow Agreement was finally adopted after a last-minute intervention by India to water down language on “phasing out” coal to merely “phasing down”.

    Glasgow Agreement

    • The Glasgow meeting was the 26th session of the Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, or COP26.
    • These meetings are held every year to construct a global response to climate change.
    • Each of these meetings produce a set of decisions which are given different names.
    • In the current case, this has been called the Glasgow Climate Pact.
    • Earlier, these meetings have also delivered two treaty-like international agreements, the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015.

    What was achieved?

    [1] Mitigation:

    • The Glasgow agreement has emphasised that stronger action in the current decade was most critical to achieving the 1.5-degree target.
    • Accordingly, it has asked/decided:
    1. To strengthen their 2030 climate action plans, or NDCs (nationally-determined contributions), by next year
    2. Establish a work programme to urgently scale-up mitigation ambition and implementation
    3. To convene an annual meeting of ministers to raise ambition of 2030 climate actions
    4. Annual synthesis report on what countries were doing
    5. To convene a meeting of world leaders in 2023 to scale-up ambition of climate action
    6. Countries to make efforts to reduce usage of coal as a source of fuel, and abolish “inefficient” subsidies on fossil fuels
    7. Phase-down of coal, and phase-out of fossil fuels. This is the first time that coal has been explicitly mentioned in any COP decision.

    [2] Adaptation:

    • Most of the countries, especially the smaller and poorer ones, and the small island states, consider adaptation to be the most important component of climate action.
    • They have been demanding that at least half of all climate finance should be directed towards adaptation efforts.
    • As such, the Glasgow Climate Pact has:
    1. Asked the developed countries to at least double the money being provided for adaptation by 2025 from the 2019 levels.
    2. Created a two-year work programme to define a global goal on adaptation.

    [3] Finance:

    • Every climate action has financial implications. It is now estimated that trillions of dollars are required every year to fund all the actions necessary to achieve the climate targets.
    • Developed countries are under an obligation, due to their historical responsibility in emitting greenhouse gases.
    • They need to provide finance and technology to the developing nations to help them deal with climate change.
    • In 2009, developed countries had promised to mobilise at least $100 billion every year from 2020.
    • The 2020 deadline has long passed but the $100 billion promise has not been fulfilled.
    • The developed nations have now said that they will arrange this amount by 2023.

    [4] Accounting earlier failures

    The pact has:

    • Expressed “deep regrets” over the failure of the developed countries to deliver on their $100 billion promise.
    • It has asked them to arrange this money urgently and in every year till 2025
    • Initiated discussions on setting the new target for climate finance, beyond $100 billion for the post-2025 period
    • Asked the developed countries to provide transparent information about the money they plan to provide

    [5] Loss and Damage:

    The frequency of climate disasters has been rising rapidly, and many of these caused largescale devastation.

    • There is no institutional mechanism to compensate these nations for the losses, or provide them help in the form of relief and rehabilitation.
    • The loss and damage provision in the Paris Agreement seeks to address that.
    • Thanks to a push from many nations, substantive discussions on loss and damage could take place in Glasgow.
    • One of the earlier drafts included a provision for setting up of a facility to coordinate loss and damage activities.

    [6] Carbon Markets:

    • Carbon markets facilitate the trading of emission reductions.
    • They are considered a very important and effective instrument to reduce overall emissions.
    • A carbon market existed under Kyoto Protocol but is no longer there because the Protocol itself expired last year.
    • Developing countries like India, China or Brazil have large amounts of carbon credits left over because of the lack of demand as many countries abandoned their emission reduction targets.
    • The Glasgow Pact has offered some reprieve to the developing nations.
    • It has allowed these carbon credits to be used in meeting countries’ first NDC targets.

    Parallel Processes announced

    A lot of substantial action in Glasgow happened in parallel processes that were not a part of the official COP discussions.

    • India announced a Panchamrita (a mixture of five elements) of climate actions.
    • Brazil would advance its net-zero target year from 2060 to 2050.
    • China promised to come out with a detailed roadmap for its commitment to let emissions peak in 2030, and also for its 2060 net-zero target. Israel announced a net zero target for 2050.
    • Over 100 countries pledged to reduce methane emissions by at least 30 per cent from present levels by 2030.
    • Another set of over 100 countries promised to arrest and reverse deforestation by 2030.
    • Over 30 countries signed on to a declaration promising to work towards a transition to 100 percent zero-emission cars by the year 2040, at least in the leading car markets of the world.

     

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