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Subject: Climate Change

1. Global Warming and Issues
2. All about Pollution

  • Does India have a right to burn fossil fuels?

    Context

    There has been quite a lot of debate on India’s dependence on coal against the backdrop of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) meeting. The crux of the theoretical argument is that India needs to develop, and development requires energy.

    Carbon budget framework

    • India has neither historically emitted nor currently emits carbon anywhere close to what the global North has, or does, in per capita terms.
    • If anything, the argument goes, it should ask for a higher and fairer share in the global carbon budget.
    • There is no doubt that this carbon budget framework is an excellent tool to understand global injustice but to move from there to our ‘right to burn’ is a big leap.
    • However, the question is do the countries in the global South necessarily need to increase their share in the global carbon budget?

    Why should developing countries aim for development without increasing carbon emission

    1) Reducing the cost of renewable energy

    • Normally the argument in favour of coal is on account of its cost, reliability and domestic availability.
    • Recent data show that the levelised cost of electricity from renewable energy sources like solar (photovoltaic), hydro and onshore wind has been declining sharply over the last decade and is already less than fossil fuel-based electricity generation.
    •  On reliability, frontier renewable energy technologies have managed to address the question of variability of such sources to a large extent and, with technological progress, it seems to be changing for the better.
    • As for the easy domestic availability of coal, it is a myth.
    • India is among the largest importers of coal in the world, whereas it has no dearth of solar energy.

    2) Following different development model

    •  During the debates of post-colonial development in the Third World, there were two significant issues under discussion — control over technology and choice of techniques to address the issue of surplus labour.
    • India didn’t quite resolve the two issues in its attempts of import-substituting industrialisation which worsened during the post-reform period.
    • But it can address both today.
    • The abundance of renewable natural resources in the tropical climate can give India a head start in this competitive world of technology.
    • South-South collaborations can help India avoid the usual patterns of trade between the North and the South, where the former controls technology and the latter merely provides inputs.
    • And the high-employment trajectory that the green path entails vis-à-vis the fossil fuel sector may help address the issue of surplus labour, even if partially.
    • Such a path could additionally provide decentralised access to clean energy to the poor and the marginalised, including in remote regions of India.

    3) Limitation of addressing global injustice in terms of a carbon budget

    •  The framework of addressing global injustice in terms of a carbon budget is quite limiting in its scope in more ways than one.
    • Such an injustice is not at the level of the nation-states alone; there is such injustice between the rich and the poor within nations and between humans and non-human species.
    • A progressive position on justice would take these injustices into account instead of narrowly focusing on the framework of nation-states.
    • Moreover, it’s a double whammy of injustice for the global South when it comes to climate change.
    • Not only is it not primarily responsible, but the global South, especially its poor, will unduly bear the effect of climate change because of its tropical climate and high population density along the coastal lines.
    • So, arguing for more coal is like shooting oneself in the foot.

    Way forward

    • One of the ways in which this can be done is by making the global North pay for the energy transition in the South.
    • Chalking out an independent, greener path to development may create conditions for such negotiations and give the South the moral high ground to force the North to come to the table, like South Africa did at Glasgow.

    Conclusion

    Even if one is pessimistic about this path of righting the wrongs of the past, at the very least, it is better than the status quo.

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  • Net-zero presents many opportunities for India — and challenges

    Context

    India joined the other G20 countries in making a “net-zero” commitment, setting 2070 as its target year.

    Why was it important to sign up for net-zero?

    • India’s topography — its 7,000 km-long coastline, the Himalayan glaciers in the north, and its rich forest areas which house natural resources like coal and iron ore — make the country uniquely vulnerable to climate change.
    • An IMF study suggests that if emissions continue to rise this century, India’s real GDP per capita could fall by 10 per cent by 2100.
    • India’s traditional position has been that since its per capita energy use is only a third of the global average, and it needs to continue to grow to fight poverty, costly energy reduction targets should not be applied to it.

    Opportunities presented by India’s net-zero approach

    •  It could give a clear signal of India’s intentions and provide better access to international technology, funding and markets.
    • We estimate that 60 per cent of India’s capital stock — factories and buildings that will exist in 2040 — is yet to be built.
    • The country can potentially leapfrog into new green technology, rather than being overburdened with “re-fitting” obligations.
    • If India can now transition to green growth, it could create a more responsible and sustainable economy.
    • If India’s exports achieve a “green stamp”, they may find better market access, especially if the world imposes a carbon tax on exports.
    • Around 2-2.5 million additional jobs can be created in the renewables sector by 2050, taking the total number of people employed there to over 3 million.

    Challenges

    • The finances of power distribution companies need to be improved to fund the grid upgrades necessary for scaling up renewables.
    • India needs a coordinated institutional framework that can help overcome multiple levels of complexity like federalism, fiscal constraints and bureaucracy.
    • The energy investment requirement will be high, rising from about $70-80 billion per year now to $160 billion per year.
    •  While the private sector will be required to fund much of this, the government can play a pivotal role, especially in the early days.
    • The transition years will be bumpy.
    • Inflation could be volatile till renewables reached their full potential.

    Conclusion

    India is on the right track but needs to redouble its efforts to remove the obstacles.

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  • Climate Change Performance Index, 2021

    The 17th edition of the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2021 was released recently.

    It’s a very rare feat that India has performed so better in any climate-related index. We can use this data to highlight India’s dedicated efforts for Paris Agreement.

    About CCPI

    • The CCPI is an independent monitoring tool for tracking countries’ climate protection performance. It has been published annually since 2005.
    • It is compiled by Germanwatch, the New Climate Institute, and the Climate Action Network.
    • It evaluates 57 countries and the European Union, which together generate 90%+ of global greenhouse gas emissions.

    Parameters of the index

    • The CCPI looks at four categories, with 14 indicators: Greenhouse Gas Emissions (40% of the overall score), Renewable Energy (20%), Energy Use (20%), and Climate Policy (20%).
    • The CCPI’s unique climate policy section evaluates countries’ progress in implementing policies working towards achieving the Paris Agreement goals.

    Highlights of the 2021 report

    • The first three ranks of the overall rankings were kept empty because no country had performed well enough in all index categories to achieve an overall very high rating.
    • The 2021 report places Sweden on top, while countries such as Morocco and the UK are also ranked high.
    • The bottom-ranked country, the United States, therefore, was placed at 61.

    Low performers

    • Iran and Russia are ranked the lowest in this category.
    • Overall, Australia, South Korea and Russia are among the lowest performing countries along with Kazakhstan and Saudi Arabia.
    • China is ranked 33 overall and has an overall rating of “low”.

    India’s performance

    • In the overall rankings, India is at number 10 with a score of 63.98.
    • It is a high performer except in the renewable energy category, in which it is ranked “medium”.
    • The report says that India is benefiting from its relatively low per-capita emissions.
    • In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, Sweden, Egypt, Chile and the UK are in the top 7. India is ranked 12.

     

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  • The long road to Net Zero

    India has joined a high-profile group of countries pledging for net-zero target by 2070.

    What does Net-Zero mean?

    • Net-zero, which is also referred to as carbon-neutrality, does not mean that a country would bring down its emissions to zero.
    • That would be gross-zero, which means reaching a state where there are no emissions at all, a scenario hard to comprehend.
    • Therefore, net-zero is a state in which a country’s emissions are compensated by absorption and removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.

    What’s the difference between gross zero and net-zero?

    • Gross zero would mean stopping all emissions, which isn’t realistically attainable across all sectors of our lives and industry.
    • Even with best efforts to reduce them, there will still be some emissions.
    • Net-zero looks at emissions overall, allowing for the removal of any unavoidable emissions, such as those from aviation or manufacturing.
    • Removing greenhouse gases could be via nature, as trees take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, or through new technology or changing industrial processes.

    What is carbon negativity?

    • It is even possible for a country to have negative emissions if the absorption and removal exceed the actual emissions.
    • *Bhutan has negative emissions because it absorbs more than it emits.

    What is the outlook for India’s emissions?

    • Analysis of India’s growth path points to rising GDP per capita, with a rise in carbon emissions in the short term, primarily from energy.
    • There is pressure from absolute increase in population and consumption, but population growth is slowing.

    India’s major emission sources

    • In terms of sectoral GHG emissions, data from 2016 show that electricity and heat account for the highest share (1.11 billion tonnes).
    • It is followed by agriculture (704.16 million tonnes), manufacturing and construction (533.8 million tonnes), transport (265.3 million tonnes), industry (130.61 million tonnes).
    • Land-use change and forestry (126.43 million tonnes) is also a major source.
    • Other fuel use (119.04 million tonnes), buildings (109.2 million tonnes), waste (80.98 million tonnes), fugitive emissions (54.95 million tonnes) accounts for major urban sources.
    • Aviation and shipping (20.4 million tonnes) accounts for the least source of emission.

    Immediate interventions that can be made

    • Legal mechanism: India needs to create a legal mandate for climate impact assessment of all activities.
    • Investment: This can facilitate investment by dedicated green funds.
    • Wholistic participation: Public sector institutions promoted by the government, co-operatives and even market mechanisms will participate.
    • Renewable energy: The 500 GW renewables target needs a major boost, such as channeling more national and international climate funding into decentralized solar power.
    • Hydrogen economy: Another emerging sector is green hydrogen production because of its potential as a clean fuel. India has a National Hydrogen Mission now in place.
    • Waste Management: India’s urban solid waste management will need to modernise to curb methane emissions from unscientific landfills.
    • Stored carbon mitigation: Preventing the release of stored carbon in the environment, such as trees and soil, has to be a net zero priority.

    Role of developed countries

    • India’s argument is that it has historically been one of the lowest emitters of GHGs.
    • The impetus has to come from the developed economies that had the benefit of carbon-intensive development since the Industrial Revolution.

    Way forward

    • These plans need a political consensus and support from State governments.
    • Net-zero will involve industrial renewal using green innovation, green economy support and supply chains yielding new jobs.
    • It also needs low carbon technologies, zero-emission vehicles, and renewed cities promoting walking and cycling.
    • The industry will need to make highly energy-efficient goods that last longer, and consumers should be given a legal right to repair goods they buy.

     

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  • The right time for India to have its own climate law

    Context

    The United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26, from October 31 to November 12, 2021), at Glasgow, Scotland is important as it will call for practical implementation of the 2015 Paris Accord, setting the rules for the Accord.

    Indian proposals

    • Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced, on November 1 at Glasgow, a ‘Panchamrit solution’ which aims at reducing fossil fuel dependence and carbon intensity.
    • This also includes ramping up India’s renewable energy share to 50% by 2030.
    • Union Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Bhupender Yadav has reasserted the call for the promised $100 billion a year as support (from the developed world to the developing world).
    • But as we consider new energy pathways, we must also consider the question of climate hazard, nature-based solutions and national accountability.
    • This is the right time for India to mull setting up a climate law while staying true to its goals of climate justice, carbon space and environmental protection.

    Why India needs climate law

    • There are a few reasons for this.
    • Existing laws not adequate: Our existing laws are not adequate to deal with climate change.
    • We have for example the Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
    • Yet, climate is not exactly water or air.
    • The Environment (Protection) Act is grossly inadequate to deal with violations on climate. Clause 24 of the Act, “Effect of Other Laws”, states that if an offence is committed under the EPA or any other law, the person will be punished under the other law (for example, Code of Criminal Procedure).
    • This makes the EPA subordinate to every other law. 
    • There is a need to integrate climate action: Integration includes adaptation and mitigation — and monitoring progress.
    • Comprehensive climate action is not just technological such as changing energy sources or carbon intensity, but also nature-based such as emphasising restoration of ecosystems.
    • India’s situation is unique: Climate action cannot come by furthering sharpening divides or exacerbating poverty, and this includes our stated renewable energy goals.
    • The 500 Gigawatt by 2030 goal for renewable can put critically endangered grassland and desert birds such as the Great Indian Bustard at risk, as they die on collision with wires in the desert.

    Suggestions on climate law

    • A climate law could consider two aspects.
    • Commission on climate change: Creating an institution that monitors action plans for climate change.
    • A ‘Commission on Climate Change’ could be set up, with the power and the authority to issue directions, and oversee implementation of plans and programmes on climate.
    • The Commission could have quasi-judicial powers with powers of a civil court to ensure that its directions are followed in letter and spirit.
    • System of liability and accountability: We need a system of liability and accountability at short-, medium- and long-term levels as we face hazards.
    • This also means having a legally enforceable National Climate Change Plan that goes beyond just policy guidelines.
    • A Climate Commission could ideally prevent gross negligence in fragile areas and fix accountability if it arises.

    Conclusion

    We have an urgent moral imperative to tackle climate change and reduce its worst impacts. But we also should Indianise the process by bringing in a just and effective law — with guts, a spine, a heart, and, most importantly, teeth.

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  • Global Methane Pledge

    The Global Methane Pledge was launched at the ongoing UN COP26 climate conference in Glasgow.

    What is the Global Methane Pledge?

    • Global Methane Pledge is an agreement to reduce global methane emissions.
    • One of the central aims of this agreement is to cut down methane emissions by up to 30 per cent from 2020 levels by the year 2030.
    • The pledge was first announced in September by the United States and the European Union.
    • So far, over 90 countries have signed this pledge.

    Why methane?

    • According to the UN, 25 % of the warming that the world is experiencing today is because of methane.
    • Methane is the second-most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, after carbon dioxide.
    • According to IPCC, methane accounts for about half of the 1.0 degrees Celsius net rise in global average temperature since the pre-industrial era.

    About Methane

    • Methane is a greenhouse gas, which is also a component of natural gas.
    • There are various sources of methane including human and natural sources.
    • The anthropogenic sources are responsible for 60 per cent of global methane emissions.
    • It includes landfills, oil and natural gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, wastewater treatment, and certain industrial processes.
    • The oil and gas sectors are among the largest contributors to human sources of methane.
    • These emissions come primarily from the burning of fossil fuels, decomposition in landfills and the agriculture sector.

    What is Coal-based Methane?

    • CBM, like shale gas, is extracted from unconventional gas reservoirs — where gas is extracted directly from the rock that is the source of the gas (shale in case of shale gas and coal in case of CBM).
    • The methane is held underground within the coal and is extracted by drilling into the coal seam and removing the groundwater.
    • The resulting drop in pressure causes the methane to be released from the coal.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q. With reference to two non-conventional energy sources called ‘coalbed methane’ and ‘shale gas’, consider the following ‘statements:

    1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane only that can be extracted from fi ne-grained sedimentary rocks.
    2. In India abundant coalbed methane sources exist, but so far no shale gas sources have been found.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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    Why is dealing with methane important for climate change?

    • Methane has a much shorter atmospheric lifetime (12 years as compared to centuries for CO2).
    • However, it is a much more potent greenhouse gas simply because it absorbs more energy while it is in the atmosphere.
    • The UN notes that methane is a powerful pollutant and has a global warming potential that is 80 times greater than carbon dioxide, about 20 years after it has been released into the atmosphere.

    Back2Basics: CO2 Equivalents

    • Each greenhouse gas (GHG) has a different global warming potential (GWP) and persists for a different length of time in the atmosphere.
    • The three main greenhouse gases (along with water vapour) and their 100-year global warming potential (GWP) compared to carbon dioxide are:

    1 x – carbon dioxide (CO2)

    25 x – methane (CH4) – I.e. Releasing 1 kg of CH4into the atmosphere is about equivalent to releasing 25 kg of CO2

    298 x – nitrous oxide (N2O)

    • Water vapour is not considered to be a cause of man-made global warming because it does not persist in the atmosphere for more than a few days.
    • There are other greenhouse gases which have far greater global warming potential (GWP) but are much less prevalent. These are sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
    • There are a wide variety of uses for SF6, HFCs, and PFCs but they have been most commonly used as refrigerants and for fire suppression.
    • Many of these compounds also have a depleting effect on ozone in the upper atmosphere.

     

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  • India offers ‘Panchamrita’ Strategy for Climate Conundrum at Glasgow

    PM Modi has proposed a five-fold strategy called the ‘Panchamrita’ for India to play its part in helping the world get closer to 1.5 degrees Celsius on the first day of the global climate meeting in Glasgow.

    What is Panchamrita?

    • ‘Panchamrita’ is a traditional method of mixing five natural foods — milk, ghee, curd, honey and jaggery. These are used in Hindu and Jain worship rituals. It is also used as a technique in Ayurveda.
    • The PM euphemistically termed his scheme as ‘Panchamrita’ meaning the ‘five ambrosia’.
    • Under Panchamrita’, India will:
    1. Get its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 gigawatts by 2030
    2. Meet 50 per cent of its energy requirements till 2030 with renewable energy
    3. Reduce its projected carbon emission by one billion tonnes by 2030
    4. Reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by 45 per cent by 2030
    5. Achieve net zero by 2070

    Key takeaways of PM’s speech

    (a) Commitment for climate action

    • India consists of 17 per cent of the world’s population but contribute only five per cent of emissions.
    • Yet, it has left no stone unturned in doing our bit to fight climate change.
    • At Paris, India was making promises not to the world but to itself and 1.3 billion Indians, PM said.

    (b) Climate finance

    • The 2015 Paris CoP where the Paris Agreement was signed was not a summit but a sentiment.
    • The promises made till now on climate finance were useless.
    • When we all are increasing our ambitions on climate action, the world’s ambition could not stay the same on climate finance as was agreed at the time of Paris.

    (c) India’s track record

    • India was fourth as far as installed renewable energy capacity was concerned.
    • The Indian Railways has pledged to make itself net-zero by 2030. This will result in an annual 60 million tonnes reduction in emissions.
    • India initiated the International Solar Alliance for solar energy.
    • It has also set up the coalition for disaster resilient infrastructure for climate adaptation.

     

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  • [pib] BASIC Countries

    The Union Environment Minister has delivered the statement on behalf of the BASIC group of countries at the UN Climate Change Conference underway at Glasgow.

    Who are the BASIC Countries?

    • The BASIC countries (also Basic countries or BASIC) are a bloc of four large newly industrialized countries – Brazil, South Africa, India and China.
    • It was formed by an agreement on 28 November 2009.
    • The four committed to act jointly at the Copenhagen climate summit, including a possible united walk-out if their common minimum position was not met by the developed nations.
    • This emerging geopolitical alliance, initiated and led by China, then brokered the final Copenhagen Accord with the United States.

    What is the Copenhagen Accord?

    • The Copenhagen Accord is a document signed at COP 15 to the UNFCCC on 18 December 2009.
    • The Accord states that global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F).
    • It does not specify what the baseline is for these temperature targets (e.g., relative to pre-industrial or 1990 temperatures).
    • In January 2010, the Accord was described merely as a political agreement and not legally binding, as is argued by the US and Europe.
    • It is not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol, whose round ended in 2012.
    • According to the UNFCCC, these targets are relative to pre-industrial temperatures.

     

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  • What is Climate Vulnerability Index?

    Environmental think tank Council on Energy, Environment and Water has carried a first-of-its-kind district-level climate vulnerability assessment, or Climate Vulnerability Index (CVI).

    Climate Vulnerability Index

    • The Index takes into account certain indicators when assessing the preparedness of a state or district.
    • It considers:
    1. Exposure (that is whether the district is prone to extreme weather events)
    2. Sensitivity (the likelihood of an impact on the district by the weather event)
    3. Adaptive capacity (what the response or coping mechanism of the district is)

    Significance of CVI

    • CVI helps map critical vulnerabilities and plan strategies to enhance resilience and adapt by climate-proofing communities, economies and infrastructure.
    • Instead of looking at climate extremes in isolation, the study looks at the combined risk of hydro-met disasters, which is floods, cyclones and droughts, and their impact.
    • The study does not take into consideration other natural disasters such as earthquakes.

    Why does India need a climate vulnerability index?

    • According to Germanwatch’s 2020 findings, India is the seventh-most vulnerable country with respect to climate extremes.
    • Extreme weather events have been increasing in the country such as supercyclone Amphan in the Bay of Bengal, which is now the strongest cyclone to be recorded in the country.
    • Recent events such as the landslides and floods in Uttarakhand and Kerala, have also increased in the past decade.
    • Further, the IPCC states that every degree rise in temperature will lead to a three per cent increase in precipitation, causing increased intensification of cyclones and floods.

    Key findings of the CVI

    According to CVI, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Bihar are most vulnerable to extreme climate events such as floods, droughts and cyclones in India.

    • 183 hotspot districts are highly vulnerable to more than one extreme climate events
    • 60% of Indian districts have medium to low adaptive capacity in handing extreme weather events – these districts don’t have robust plans in place to mitigate impact
    • North-eastern states are more vulnerable to floods
    • South and central are most vulnerable to extreme droughts
    • 59 and 41 per cent of the total districts in the eastern and western states, respectively, are highly vulnerable to extreme cyclones.

    Best performing states

    • Kerala and West Bengal have performed well comparatively, despite both being coastal states and dealing with the threat of cyclones and floods annually.
    • The reason why these states have performed better is that they have stepped up their climate action plans as well as preparedness to handle an extreme weather event.

    Key recommendations

    • Develop a high-resolution Climate Risk Atlas (CRA) to map critical vulnerabilities
    • Establish a centralised climate-risk commission to coordinate the environmental de-risking mission.
    • Undertake climate-sensitivity-led landscape restoration focused on rehabilitating, restoring, and reintegrating natural ecosystems as part of the developmental process.
    • Integrate climate risk profiling with infrastructure planning to increase adaptive capacity.
    • Provide for climate risk-interlinked adaptation financing by creating innovative CVI-based financing instruments that integrate climate risks for an effective risk transfer mechanism.

     

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  • Sundarbans among 5 sites with highest ‘Blue Carbon’ globally

    India’s Sundarbans National Park is among five sites that have the highest blue carbon stocks globally, according to a new assessment.

    Highlights of the study

    • ‘World Heritage forests’ are now releasing more carbon than they are absorbing, primarily due to human activity and climate change, according to the assessment.
    • UNESCO lists 50 sites across the globe for their unique marine values. These represent just one per cent of the global ocean area.
    • But they comprise at least 15 per cent of global blue carbon assests.

    Try this question from CSP 2021:

    Q. What is blue carbon?

    (a) Carbon captured by oceans and coastal ecosystems

    (b) Carbon sequestered in forest biomass and agricultural soils

    (c) Carbon contained in petroleum and natural gas

    (d) Carbon present in atmosphere

     

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    Carbon capacity of Sundarbans

    • The Sundarbans National Park has stores of 60 million tonnes of carbon (Mt C).
    • The other four sites besides the Sundarbans National Park in India are:
    1. Bangladeshi portion of the Sundarbans (110 Mt C)
    2. Great Barrier Reef in Australia (502 Mt C)
    3. Everglades National Park in the US (400 Mt C) and
    4. Banc d’Arguin National Park in Mauritania (110 Mt C)

    About Sundarbans

    • Sundarbans is the largest delta and mangrove forest in the world.
    • The Indian Sunderbans, which covers 4,200 sq km, comprises of the Sunderban Tiger Reserve of 2,585 sq km is home to about 96 Royal Bengal Tigers (2020) is also a world heritage site and a Ramsar Site.
    • The Indian Sunderbans is bound on the west by river Muriganga and on the east by rivers Harinbhahga and Raimangal.
    • Other major rivers flowing through this eco-system are Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Matla and Goasaba.

    Worrying scenario

    • The researchers found that 10 of 257 forests emitted more carbon than they captured between 2001 and 2020.
    • The reasons for included clearance of land for agriculture, the increasing scale and severity of wildfires due to drought as well as extreme weather phenomena.
    • The 10 sites are:
    1. Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra (Indonesia)
    2. Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve (Honduras)
    3. Yosemite National Park (US)
    4. Waterton Glacier International Peace Park (Canada, US)
    5. Barberton Makhonjwa Mountains (South Africa)
    6. Kinabalu Park (Malaysia)
    7. Uvs Nuur Basin (Russian Federation, Mongolia)
    8. Grand Canyon National Park (US)
    9. Greater Blue Mountains Area (Australia)
    10. Morne Trois Pitons National Park (Dominica)

    (Try mapping these sites)

    Back2Basics: Types of Carbon

    • Brown Carbon: It is brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter.
    • Black Carbon: It is also a greenhouse gas and causes more pollution than Brown Carbon. The particles leftover from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (soot and dust). It has a greater effect on radiation transmission.
    • Green Carbon: Carbon incorporated into plant biomass and the soils below. Green carbon is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems.
    • Blue Carbon: Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, marine organism and sediments.

     

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