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Subject: Climate Change

1. Global Warming and Issues
2. All about Pollution

  • Extreme Heat & Global Food Systems 

     Why in the News?

    • A joint report by the Food and Agriculture Organization and World Meteorological Organization warns that extreme heat is threatening global agrifood systems, impacting over a billion people.

    Key Findings

    • Heatwaves are: More frequent, More intense, and Longer-lasting
    • Crop yields decline sharply beyond: ~30°C threshold
      • Example: Morocco saw 40% fall in cereal yield
    • Impact on Major Crops: Every 1°C rise in temperature leads to:
      • ~6% reduction in yields of: Maize, Rice, Wheat, and Soybean
    • Marine Impact: Marine heatwaves: Reduce oxygen in oceans and Threaten fish stocks
      • In 2024: 91% of oceans experienced marine heatwaves
    • Risk Escalation:
      • 2°C warming → heat intensity doubles
      • 3°C warming → heat intensity quadruples
    • Livestock Impact
      • 15–25% drop in milk production
      • Reduced fertility
      • Poultry mortality
    [2014] The scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2°C above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3°C above the pre-industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world? 
    1 Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source. 
    2 Widespread coral mortality will occur. 
    3 All the global wetlands will permanently disappear. 
    4 Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere in the world. 
    Select the correct answer using the code given below. 
    a) 1 only b) 1 and 2 only c) 2, 3 and 4 only d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • Marine Spatial Plan: Odisha’s bid to strengthen climate resilience

    Why in the News?

    Odisha has signed an MoU with the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR) to implement a Marine Spatial Plan (MSP), making it one of the first Indian states to operationalize integrated ocean planning at a state scale. This is significant as coastal management in India has traditionally been sectoral (fisheries, ports, tourism) and reactive.

    What is Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and why is it relevant?

    1. According to UNESCO, Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is a public process of analyzing and allocating the spatial and temporal distribution of human activities in marine areas to achieve ecological, economic and social objectives that have been specified through a political process.
    2. It is a tool for sustainable and integrated ocean management aimed at boosting the blue economy and strengthening climate resilience. 
    3. It helps for sustainable utilisation of marine resources in energy, economic activities like developing ports, harbours, setting up industries, environment, fisheries, aquaculture and tourism and to formulate policies accordingly.
    4. It aligns with UNESCO-IOC guidelines for sustainable ocean management.
    5. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
    6. Indian Context: Extends India-Norway collaboration on ocean management initiated in 2019.

    Why does Odisha require MSP at this stage?

    Odisha requires Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) at this stage, launched in April 2026 as the first state in India to enter the second phase of the India-Norway Sustainable Ocean Planning initiative. It was launched to balance intense developmental pressures with environmental conservation along its 574-km coastline. The planning is essential to resolve conflicts between economic activities (ports, tourism, fisheries) and the protection of ecologically sensitive habitats.

    1. Extensive Coastline: Covers 550+ km, including ecologically sensitive zones like lagoons and mangroves.
    2. Development Pressures: Increasing industrial, tourism, and port activities create resource conflicts.
    3. Biodiversity Significance: Coastal ecosystems support livelihoods and ecological balance.
    4. Climate Vulnerability: Frequent cyclones and rising sea levels necessitate adaptive planning.
    5. Data Gaps: Requires scientific mapping of salinity, temperature, and ecosystem components.

    How does MSP function as a governance mechanism?

    Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) functions as a governance mechanism by providing a public, data-driven process that integrates multiple maritime sectors (e.g., energy, fishing, shipping) to map, allocate, and manage ocean space sustainably. It reduces conflicts, creates efficiencies, protects ecosystems, and enables collaborative decision-making across jurisdictions

    1. Spatial Allocation: Identifies zones for fishing, tourism, conservation, and infrastructure.
    2. Scientific Mapping: Studies water parameters (salinity, temperature) to guide activity suitability.
    3. Conflict Resolution: Reduces sectoral conflicts through predefined spatial use.
    4. Policy Integration: Links economic policies with environmental safeguards.
    5. Stakeholder Coordination: Engages multiple sectors and coastal communities.

    What are the expected economic and ecological outcomes?

    1. Blue Economy Expansion: Enhances fisheries, tourism, and ocean energy sectors.
    2. Ecosystem Protection: Preserves mangroves, seagrasses, and marine biodiversity.
    3. Livelihood Security: Supports coastal populations dependent on marine resources.
    4. Efficient Resource Use: Ensures optimal allocation without ecological degradation.
    5. Long-term Sustainability: Maintains ecosystem health alongside economic growth.

    What complementary initiatives strengthen MSP in Odisha?

    1. OMBRIC Initiative: The Odisha Marine Biotechnology Research and Innovation Corridor (OMBRIC) supports marine biotechnology for environmental protection and economic use.
    2. Biotechnology Integration: OMBRIC involves seven leading research institutions, including IIT Bhubaneswar, NIT Rourkela, and ILS Bhubaneswar.  These focus on mapping marine bioresources, cultivating unculturable microorganisms for industrial enzymes, and breeding Indian horseshoe crabs.
    3. Tourism and Livelihood Linkages: Develops eco-tourism and scientific tourism models.
      1. It includes the development of an oceanarium and water sports along the Puri-Konark marine drive. 
      2. It also includes a “Million Mangroves by 2030” initiative to empower local fisherfolk and women-led groups through nature-based solutions.
    4. Policy Ecosystem: The initiative aligns with India’s Vision 2047, focusing on technology-driven resource management for climate-resilient growth. Key partnerships include the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) and the Odisha Marine Bio Resource Atlas project to publish data on marine life.

    Conclusion

    Odisha’s MSP represents a transition toward integrated, science-driven marine governance. It enhances climate resilience while supporting economic activities. Its success can provide a model for other coastal states in India.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard?

    Linkage: Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) acts as a preventive mitigation tool by regulating coastal activities and reducing erosion, habitat loss, and ecosystem degradation. It complements coastal management techniques through scientific zoning and ecosystem-based adaptation, strengthening long-term climate mitigation and resilience.

  • Marine Heatwaves (MHWs) 

    Why in the News?

    • A recent study shows that tropical cyclones passing over marine heatwaves become far more destructive, leading to about 60% more billion-dollar disasters due to rapid intensification.

    What are Marine Heatwaves

    • A prolonged period of unusually high sea surface temperature
    • Duration: Days to months
    • Temperature anomaly: Typically 1°C to 3°C above normal

    Key Characteristics

    • Region-specific phenomenon
    • Defined by: Duration, Intensity, and Spatial extent

    Causes of Marine Heatwaves

    1. Climate Change

    • Oceans absorb over 90% of excess heat
    • Raises baseline temperature

    2. Weakening Winds

    • Less: Evaporation and Vertical mixing

    3. Ocean Stratification

    • Warm water trapped at surface
    • No mixing with cooler deep water

    4. Ocean Currents

    • Transport warm water to new regions

    5. Climate Oscillations

    • Example: El Niño
    • Raises sea surface temperatures
    [2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct? 
    1 OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters in the southwestern Indian Ocean during January — March. 
    2 OMT collected during January – March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean. 
    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 
    a) 1 only 
    b) 2 only 
    c) Both 1 and 2 
    d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • [16th April 2026] The Hindu OpED: Dry days: On rainfall deficit forecast

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2024] What are the major challenges faced by Indian irrigation system in recent times? State the measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management.Linkage: Rainfall deficit directly stresses irrigation systems and reservoirs. It helps structure answers on water management under weak monsoon conditions.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India is entering a potentially risky monsoon year with the India Meteorological Department forecasting an 8% rainfall deficit (below normal) for the upcoming southwest monsoon. This is significant because it marks a sharp reversal after two consecutive years of surplus rainfall, raising concerns of drought-like conditions. 

    What explains the rising uncertainty in India’s monsoon predictions?

    1. Forecast Variability: IMD predicts 8% deficit with ±5% error margin, indicating inherent uncertainty.
    2. Historical Underestimation: IMD often forecasts “normal” but outcomes lean towards drought conditions.
    3. Lexical Limitation: IMD avoids term “drought,” classifies rainfall below 90% as “deficient,” masking severity.
    4. Case Evidence: 2015 forecast (93% LPA) resulted in 86% actual rainfall, showing prediction gaps.

    How does El Niño structurally impact Indian monsoon patterns?

    1. Ocean Heating Threshold: Central Pacific warming beyond 1°C correlates with weak monsoons.
    2. Statistical Link: 9 out of 16 El Niño years since 1950 resulted in deficient rainfall.
    3. Seasonal Impact: Expected suppression in second half (Aug-Sept), critical for crop maturity.
    4. Temporal Sensitivity: Impact depends on timing of warming, not just occurrence.

    Why is 2019 an important counter-example to El Niño effects?

    2019 is a crucial counter-example to El Niño effects because it defied the traditional, strong inverse correlation between Pacific warming and Indian monsoon rainfall. Despite the development of an El Niño-like state, India experienced above-normal rainfall, highlighting climate system non-linearity and reducing reliance on a single forecasting factor.

    1. Forecast Failure: IMD predicted deficit due to El Niño-like signals.
    2. Outcome Reversal: India experienced above-normal rainfall.
    3. Reason: Ocean warming was weaker than expected, reducing impact.
    4. Inference: Highlights non-linearity and unpredictability in climate systems.

    What role does the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) play in moderating risks?

    The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) moderates climate risks by acting as a “seesaw” of sea surface temperatures, where a positive IOD (+IOD) can offset the drying, drought-inducing impacts of El Niño on the Indian monsoon. It acts as a risk modifier, where +IOD increases rainfall in East Africa and India, while negative IOD (-IOD) increases drought risks in these regions. 

    1. Counter Mechanism: IOD may offset drying impact of El Niño.
    2. Conditional Effectiveness: Depends on strength and synchronization with monsoon cycle.
    3. Policy Relevance: Adds uncertainty buffer, but not reliable mitigation.

    How do geopolitical and economic factors compound monsoon risks?

    1. West Asia Instability: “War-like clouds” threaten fertilizer and gas supply chains.
    2. Input Cost Pressure: Fertilizer shortages may raise agricultural costs.
    3. Farmer Sentiment: Weak rains + input shocks can reduce sowing confidence.
    4. Macro Impact: Potential rise in food inflation and rural distress.

    What immediate policy responses are necessary to mitigate potential drought impacts?

    1. Fertilizer Security: Stockpiling and supply chain stabilization required.
    2. Water Management: Ensures equitable reservoir distribution, especially stressed regions.
    3. Agricultural Advisory: Provides timely sowing guidance and crop planning.
    4. Preparedness Approach: Shifts from reactive to anticipatory governance.
    5. Groundwater Conservation: Rejuvenate traditional water harvesting structures, such as ponds and tanks, and encourage artificial recharge, especially in over-exploited areas.

    Conclusion

    The anticipated rainfall deficit is not merely a climatic fluctuation but a systemic risk combining meteorological uncertainty, historical forecasting limitations, and geopolitical disruptions. Effective response requires early institutional preparedness, adaptive agricultural strategies, and resilient resource management frameworks.

  • Himalayan Vegetation Shifting Upwards 

    Why in the News?

    • A study published in Ecography shows that alpine vegetation in the Himalayas is shifting upward due to climate change, warming, and reduced snow depth.

    Key Findings

    • Study period: 1999 to 2022 (24 years)
    • Regions studied: Ladakh, Reckong, Ngari, Manthang (Nepal), Khumbu (Mt Everest region), and Bhutan

    Magnitude of Shift

    • Maximum shift: 6.95 metres/year (Manthang, Nepal)
    • Minimum shift: 1.42 metres/year (Khumbu region)
      • Indicates rapid ecological response to warming

    What is Alpine Vegetation

    • Found at: 4,100–5,000 m above mean sea level
    • Above this:
      • Sub-nival zone (5,000–5,500 m) → sparse vegetation
      • >5,500 m → snow, glaciers, rocks

    Causes of Upward Shift

    1. Rising Temperature

    • Himalayas warming faster than global average

    2. Reduced Snow Depth

    • Less snow cover → longer growing season

    3. Climate Change

    • Changes in: Temperature, Moisture, and Nutrient availability

    Greening vs Browning

    Greening

    • Increase in vegetation cover
    • More leafy growth
    • Observed in most regions

    Browning

    • Decline in vegetation / more woody shrubs
    • Seen in: Eastern Himalayas (Khumbu, Bhutan)
    • Main reason: Changes in precipitation patterns
    [2014] If you travel through the Himalayas, you are Iikely to see which of the following plants naturally growing there? 
    1. Oak 
    2. Rhododendron 
    3. Sandalwood 
    Select the correct answer using the code given below 
    [A] 1 and 2 only [B] 3 only [C] 1 and 3 only [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • [15th April 2026] The Hindu OpED: Mapping the legislative vacuum in India’s heat crisis

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2024] Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.Linkage: The PYQ tests environmental governance + mitigation frameworks, similar to heat crisis requiring policy and institutional response. Both involve anthropogenic environmental stress disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations, demanding regulatory and welfare interventions.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India’s heat crisis reflects the intersection of climate change, labour vulnerability, and governance gaps. The absence of enforceable legal protections exposes structural inequalities. The issue demands integration of climate adaptation, occupational safety, and constitutional rights.

    Why has extreme heat transformed into a systemic national crisis?

    1. Geographical Expansion: Heatwaves now affect coastal and temperate regions, unlike earlier concentration in arid zones.
    2. Rising Vulnerability: Over 57% of districts classified as heat-prone, indicating nationwide exposure.
    3. Demographic Impact: 400-490 million informal workers face direct livelihood risks.
    4. Climate Shift: Transition from seasonal variability to persistent extreme temperature regimes.

    How does heat disproportionately affect informal and vulnerable workers?

    1. Cooling Inequality: Informal workers lack access to cooling infrastructure, unlike affluent populations.
    2. Productivity Loss: Even minor temperature rise leads to significant income decline.
    3. Occupational Exposure: Construction workers, street vendors, sanitation workers face direct heat stress.
    4. Health Risks: Increased incidence of heatstroke, burns, dehydration, especially in waste-handling sectors.
    5. Climate-Caste Nexus: Marginalised communities disproportionately engaged in high-exposure occupations.

    What evidence highlights the severity of ground-level impacts?

    1. Sanitation Workers: Exposure to toxic waste creates micro-climates up to 5°C hotter than surroundings.
    2. Physical Injuries: Reports of burns due to handling heated waste without protective gear.
    3. Economic Impact: Vendors face decline in customers and perishability of goods, reducing income.
    4. Gig Workers: Algorithmic penalties discourage rest during extreme heat alerts.

    What are the key legislative and institutional gaps?

    1. Factories Act, 1948: Covers only indoor workers, excludes outdoor labour.
    2. Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020: Lacks enforceable standards for heat exposure.
    3. Discretionary Governance: Section 23 of OSHWC Code, 2020 allows government notification but no mandatory safeguards.
      1. Empowers the appropriate government to declare standards for working conditions, including safety measures.
      2. It allows issuing regulations for occupational safety, including those related to environmental conditions like heat.
      3. However, it is discretionary in nature, meaning:
        1. It does not mandate compulsory heat-protection standards.
        2. It does not ensure enforceable rights for workers, especially outdoor workers.
    4. Absence in Disaster List: Heatwaves not included in Notified National Disaster list, limiting funding.
    5. Fiscal Constraints: While states can use up to 10% of their State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for localized disasters, they cannot access the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)

    How does the crisis reflect ‘thermal injustice’?

    1. Class Disparity: Heat is inconvenience for affluent, existential threat for poor.
    2. Labour Inequity: Workers forced to choose between health and livelihood.
    3. Policy Exclusion: Informal workers excluded from adaptation strategies.
    4. Urban Inequality: Lack of cooling infrastructure in public spaces worsens vulnerability.

    What policy and governance reforms are required?

    1. Legal Enforcement: Convert heat advisories into binding mandates for districts.
    2. Heat Index Adoption: Combine temperature and humidity for realistic heat assessment.
    3. Occupational Safety: Mandate work-rest cycles and PPE provisions.
    4. Urban Infrastructure: Ensure cooling shelters, water kiosks.
    5. Gig Economy Regulation: Prohibit algorithmic penalties during heat alerts.
    6. Financial Compensation: Introduce income-loss compensation frameworks.
    7. Insurance Models: Expand schemes like parametric heat insurance.

    How can disaster management frameworks be strengthened?

    1. Disaster Classification: Include heatwaves in National Disaster List (2026-31 cycle).
    2. Funding Access: Unlock National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF).
    3. Policy Integration: Align labour laws with climate adaptation strategies.
    4. Institutional Coordination: Integrate IMD alerts with labour and urban governance.

    Conclusion

    India’s heat crisis demands a transition from advisory governance to enforceable rights-based frameworks, integrating climate resilience, labour protection, and social justice. Policy response must prioritise vulnerable populations and institutional accountability.

  • Global concerns vs national interest: Why India lost interest in hosting COP 33

    Why in the News?

    India’s decision to step back from hosting Conference of the Parties (COP) 33 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)  marks a significant shift from its earlier proactive climate diplomacy stance. This is notable because India had emerged as a key voice of the Global South under the Paris framework. Yet it is now showing hesitation amid growing dissatisfaction with inequitable climate burdens, stalled climate finance, and pressure to adopt emissions pathways misaligned with its developmental needs. 

    Why did India initially show interest in hosting COP33?

    1. Climate Leadership: Positioned India as a leading voice of the Global South in climate negotiations, especially post-Paris Agreement.
    2. Diplomatic Visibility: Enhanced India’s global stature by hosting a major multilateral platform.
    3. Policy Influence: Enabled shaping of negotiation agendas, especially on climate finance and equity.
      1. International Solar Alliance (ISA): India successfully pushed solar energy as a central solution for developing countries, leading to a global coalition focused on affordable solar deployment.
      2. Climate Justice Narrative: India consistently emphasized “climate justice” and equity, ensuring that historical responsibility of developed nations remained part of COP discussions.
      3. CBDR Principle Reinforcement: During negotiations, India defended the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), resisting attempts to dilute obligations of developed countries.
      4. Climate Finance Pressure: India played a key role in pushing developed nations to commit to the $100 billion annual climate finance target, keeping finance at the core of COP agendas.
      5. Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE): India introduced the LiFE initiative, shifting discourse from only industrial emissions to sustainable consumption patterns globally.
      6. Coal Phase-down Language (COP26): India influenced the final Glasgow text by changing “phase-out of coal” to “phase-down”, reflecting developmental concerns of emerging economies. 
    4. Continuity of Engagement: Built upon India’s increasing activism in global climate discourse.

    What factors led to India losing interest in hosting COP33?

    1. Shifting Global Context: Reflects a recalibration where national interests increasingly outweigh symbolic global leadership roles.
    2. Inequitable Burden Sharing: Highlights dissatisfaction with developed countries not fulfilling climate finance commitments.
      1. $100 Billion Climate Finance Gap: Developed countries failed to fully deliver the promised $100 billion annually by 2020, creating trust deficits in negotiations.
      2. COP15: Copenhagen Accord: Initial finance commitments were non-binding, shifting burden of action onto developing countries without assured support.
      3. Mitigation Pressure vs Finance Deficit: Countries like India are pushed for net-zero targets, while finance and technology transfer remain inadequate.
      4. Adaptation Funding Imbalance: Majority of funds directed toward mitigation, while vulnerable nations face shortages for adaptation needs (e.g., climate-resilient infrastructure).
      5. Loss and Damage Delays: COP27: Despite agreement on a fund, actual disbursement mechanisms remain unclear, delaying support to vulnerable nations.
      6. High Cost of Green Transition: Developing countries bear higher relative costs for transitioning energy systems without concessional finance. 
    3. Developmental Constraints: Emphasizes India’s need to prioritize economic growth, energy access, and poverty alleviation.
    4. Geopolitical Tensions: Indicates complications arising from global political dynamics affecting consensus-building.
    5. Negotiation Fatigue: Suggests diminishing returns from hosting without tangible gains in policy outcomes.

    How has the Paris Agreement framework influenced this shift?

    The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty adopted in 2015 (COP21) under the UNFCCC, aiming to limit global warming to well below 2°C-preferably 1.5°C-compared to pre-industrial levels. It operates on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate actions (NDCs) submitted by countries.

    1. Universal Commitments: Ensures all countries undertake climate actions, increasing pressure on developing nations like India.
    2. Equity Dilution: Weakens earlier differentiation between developed and developing countries under CBDR (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities).
    3. Increased Accountability: Subjects countries to greater scrutiny without guaranteed financial or technological support.
    4. Implementation Challenges: Creates domestic pressure due to ambitious targets not matched by international assistance.

    What is the significance of the IPCC AR7 angle in the debate?

    The IPCC Seventh Assessment Report (AR7) cycle, which began in July 2023, will produce three working group reports and a synthesis report scheduled for completion by late 2029. It focuses on climate science, impacts, and mitigation, with key additions including a Special Report on Cities, a methodology report on Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR), and increased representation from the Global South.

    1. Upcoming Assessment Report: The IPCC’s Seventh Assessment Report (AR7) is expected to shape future climate policy directions.
    2. Scientific Pressure: Likely to push for stricter emission reduction pathways globally.
    3. Policy Implications: May constrain policy flexibility for developing countries.
    4. Strategic Timing: Hosting COP33 before AR7 could place India in a difficult negotiating position without clarity on future frameworks.

    How do developing countries perceive current climate negotiations?

    1. Equity Concerns: Argue that historical emitters must bear greater responsibility.
    2. Finance Deficit: Highlight the failure of developed countries to deliver promised $100 billion annually.
    3. Policy Imbalance: Emphasize that mitigation burdens are disproportionately shifted to developing economies.
    4. Adaptation Needs: Stress insufficient focus on adaptation and resilience for vulnerable regions.

    What are the broader implications for global climate governance?

    1. Fragmentation Risk: Signals weakening consensus in multilateral climate negotiations.
    2. Rise of Nationalism: Reflects prioritization of domestic economic interests over global commitments.
    3. Global South Assertion: Indicates stronger bargaining by developing nations.
    4. Institutional Challenges: Questions effectiveness of COP platforms in delivering equitable outcomes. 

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?

    Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of global climate governance under UNFCCC, including COP outcomes, climate finance, equity, and India’s negotiation stance. It directly connects to India’s evolving stance in climate negotiations influencing its COP33 position.

  • Climate change reshaping disease patterns, straining health systems, finds report 

    Why in the News?

    Climate change is no longer a distant environmental issue; it is already affecting public health in India. The report “Under the Weather: India’s Climate-Health Challenges” shows a clear shift, from occasional disease outbreaks to a larger, ongoing health crisis caused by changing climate patterns. With nearly 40% of districts at high risk from extreme weather events, it highlights a turning point where climate and health policies must be addressed together, not separately.

    Why is climate change now being seen as a public health crisis in India?

    1. Health-risk multiplier: Climate variability amplifies both communicable and non-communicable diseases, increasing overall disease burden and healthcare pressure.
      1. Vector-borne diseases (Communicable): Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall expand mosquito habitats, increasing diseases like dengue and malaria. Example: Himachal Pradesh (Shimla) and parts of Jammu & Kashmir have recently reported dengue cases, regions that were earlier too cold for such outbreaks.
      2. Water-borne diseases (Communicable): Flooding contaminates water sources, leading to outbreaks of cholera and hepatitis. Case study: Kerala floods (2018) led to spikes in leptospirosis and diarrhoeal diseases due to stagnant and contaminated water.
      3. Heat-related illnesses (Non-communicable): Extreme heat increases heat strokes, dehydration, and cardiovascular stress. Case study: India Heatwave (2015) caused over 2,000 deaths, especially in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, overwhelming hospitals.
      4. Air pollution-linked diseases (Non-communicable): Climate change worsens air quality (e.g., higher PM2.5), increasing respiratory and cardiac illnesses. Example: Delhi NCR sees seasonal spikes in asthma, COPD, and heart conditions, especially during winter inversion periods.
      5. Maternal and child health impacts: Heat stress and pollution increase risks in pregnancy and early childhood. Case study: Studies in South Asia show higher preterm births during heatwaves; infants are more vulnerable due to poor heat regulation.
      6. Livelihood-health linkage: Climate shocks reduce income, leading to malnutrition and weakened immunity. Example: Drought-prone regions of Maharashtra (Marathwada) show increased child malnutrition and related diseases during repeated drought years. 
    2. Scale of vulnerability: Nearly 40% of districts face high risk from extreme weather events, indicating systemic exposure.
    3. Shift in disease ecology: Warmer temperatures and erratic rainfall expand disease vectors into new geographies.
    4. Systemic disruption: Climate events impact livelihoods, healthcare access, and infrastructure simultaneously.

    How is climate change reshaping the disease landscape in India?

    1. Vector-borne expansion: Changing rainfall patterns and warming temperatures expand diseases like dengue and malaria into previously unaffected regions such as Shimla, Himalayan foothills, and Jammu & Kashmir; Pune identified as a major dengue hotspot.
    2. Water-borne diseases: Increased flooding triggers outbreaks of cholera and hepatitis, linked to contaminated water sources.
      1. Example: Assam floods (2022) led to a surge in acute diarrhoeal diseases and suspected hepatitis cases, as submerged sanitation systems contaminated water sources across districts like Barpeta and Nagaon.
      2. Example: Mumbai floods (2005) triggered outbreaks of leptospirosis, hepatitis A, and gastroenteritis, due to overflow of drainage systems and exposure to polluted water.
    3. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs): Heat exposure increases cardiovascular mortality, while air pollution worsens respiratory illnesses and chronic conditions.
      1. A meta-analysis in Environmental Research shows that each 1°C rise above ~29°C increases all-cause mortality by ~3.9%, highlighting strong cardiovascular and systemic stress due to heat.
    4. Climate-sensitive transmission: Altered environmental conditions change pathogen survival and transmission dynamics.
      1. Cholera bacteria survival: Warmer sea surface temperatures and plankton blooms support Vibrio cholerae survival. Example: West Bengal coastal regions (Sundarbans) report recurrent cholera outbreaks linked to changing coastal water conditions.

    Which populations are disproportionately affected and why?

    1. Vulnerable groups: Rural populations, informal workers, women, and children face highest risks due to limited adaptive capacity.
    2. Occupational exposure: Outdoor workers experience productivity loss and health risks; India lost an estimated 160 billion labour hours in 2021 due to heat exposure.
    3. Gendered impacts: Women face higher exposure and health burdens due to socio-economic constraints and caregiving roles.
    4. Inequality deepening: Climate impacts exacerbate existing socio-economic inequalities and health disparities.

    What are the direct and indirect health impacts of climate change?

    1. Heat stress: Extreme heat linked to 16% increase in odds of preterm birth; increases risks for infants and pregnant women.
    2. Air pollution linkages: Rising PM2.5 levels associated with hypertension, pre-eclampsia, and gestational blood pressure disorders.Child vulnerability: Infants have limited thermoregulation, increasing susceptibility to heat stress and respiratory illnesses.
    3. Livelihood-health nexus: Climate shocks reduce income and productivity, reinforcing cycles of vulnerability.

    How does climate change disrupt healthcare systems and access?

    1. Infrastructure damage: Floods and cyclones damage hospitals, disrupt supply chains of medicines and vaccines.
    2. Access barriers: Remote areas face healthcare exclusion during disasters, leading to untreated illnesses.
    3. Service disruption: Climate events reduce continuity of care and strain emergency response systems.
    4. System overload: Increased disease burden overwhelms already fragile public health infrastructure.

    What measures have been taken to address climate-health challenges?

    1. Policy integration: Initiatives like the National Action Plan on Climate Change and Human Health aim to align climate and health strategies.
    2. Localized adaptation:State-level action plans focus on region-specific vulnerabilities and responses.
      1. Heat Action Plans (HAPs): State and city-level plans customize responses to local heat risks through early warnings, cooling centers, and hospital preparedness. Example: Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (Gujarat)—India’s first HAP, reduced heatwave mortality by introducing early warning systems, public advisories, and training for healthcare workers.
      2. Flood-resilient health planning: States prone to floods integrate disease surveillance and emergency health response. Example: Odisha developed disaster-resilient health infrastructure and rapid response systems after the 1999 super cyclone, ensuring minimal disease outbreaks during recent cyclones like Fani (2019).
      3. Vector-borne disease control: Region-specific strategies target local disease patterns and climate conditions. Example: Kerala uses pre-monsoon mosquito control drives and decentralized surveillance to manage dengue and malaria risks.
      4. Drought and nutrition linkage: States facing water stress integrate health and nutrition interventions. Example: Maharashtra (Marathwada) implements nutrition programs and water management schemes to address drought-linked malnutrition and health issues. 
    3. Early warning systems: Expansion of climate-linked disease surveillance and forecasting mechanisms.
    4. Cross-sectoral convergence: Efforts to integrate health, environment, and disaster management frameworks.

    What are the key gaps and challenges in India’s response?

    1. Data fragmentation: Lack of disaggregated data linking climate events to health outcomes limits targeted interventions.
    2. Funding constraints: Insufficient investment in climate-resilient healthcare infrastructure.
    3. Awareness deficit: Limited public understanding reduces adaptive capacity and risk preparedness.
    4. Governance gaps: Weak coordination across government, private sector, and civil society. 

    Conclusion

    Climate change is transforming India’s health landscape from episodic crises to a chronic systemic challenge. Addressing this requires integrating climate resilience into public health systems, strengthening data-driven governance, and prioritizing vulnerable populations to ensure equitable health outcomes.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected?

    Linkage: Climate change is a recurring GS-3 theme, with UPSC repeatedly focusing on its impacts, vulnerability, and disasters. This article extends that dimension by linking it to public health risks and disease patterns, enriching answers with current relevance.

  • India Withdraws Bid to Host COP 33 in 2028

    Why in the News?

    India has withdrawn its bid to host COP 33 in 2028, according to reports.
    India had earlier expressed interest at COP 28 (Dubai, 2023).

    Key Points

    • COP 33 scheduled for 2028
    • India withdrew after review of commitments
    • No official government statement yet
    • South Korea now only country interested

    COP Hosting Rotation

    COP hosting rotates among 5 UN regional groups:

    • African States
    • Asia Pacific States
    • Eastern European States
    • Latin America & Caribbean
    • Western Europe & Others

    India belongs to Asia Pacific group.

    Upcoming COPs

    • COP 30: Brazil
    • COP 31: Turkey & Australia
    • COP 32 (2027): Ethiopia
    • COP 33 (2028): To be decided

    India’s COP Hosting History

    • India hosted COP 8 (2002)
    • Only time India hosted COP

    India’s Climate Commitments (Updated NDCs)

    By 2035, India aims to:

    • 60% electricity from non fossil sources
    • Reduce emissions intensity by 47%
    • Increase carbon sink by 3.5 to 4 billion tonnes CO₂

    What is COP

    COP = Conference of Parties

    • Annual UN climate summit
    • Under UNFCCC
    • Discuss climate change policies
    [2025] Consider the following statements:
    Statement I: At the 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28), India refrained from signing the ‘Declaration on Climate and Health’.
    Statement II: The COP 28 Declaration on Climate and Health is a binding declaration; and if signed, it becomes mandatory to decarbonize health sector.
    Statement III: If India’s health sector is decarbonized, the resilience of its healthcare system may be compromised.
    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
    (a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I (b) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct but only one of the them explains Statement I (c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I (d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct

  • On India’s updated climate pledges

    Why in the News?

    India has updated its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, signalling continuity in climate ambition while exposing tensions between developmental needs and decarbonisation pressures. The revision raises critical questions on feasibility, equity, and financing, especially for a lower-middle-income economy navigating industrial expansion.

    What are the key enhancements in India’s updated NDCs?

    1. Emission Intensity Reduction: Targets reduction of 47% below 2005 levels by 2035, increasing ambition beyond earlier 45% by 2030.
    2. Non-Fossil Capacity Expansion: Ensures 60% installed electric capacity from non-fossil sources, strengthening renewable transition.
    3. Carbon Sink Expansion: Enhances forest and tree cover to create 3.5-4 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent sink.
    4. Continuity in Policy: Retains alignment with earlier commitments while incrementally increasing ambition.

    Why are India’s climate commitments structurally constrained?

    1. Developmental Status: Reflects lower-middle-income economy, limiting fiscal and technological capacity.
    2. Energy Demand Growth: Ensures rising demand due to industrial expansion and urbanisation.
    3. Per Capita Emissions: Remains one-third of global average, reinforcing equity argument.
    4. Historical Responsibility: Highlights minimal contribution compared to developed countries.

    What are the major implementation challenges in achieving NDC targets?

    1. Storage Constraints: Limits renewable scalability due to lack of battery storage capacity.
    2. Grid Integration Issues: Creates challenges in balancing intermittent sources like solar and wind.
    3. Transmission Bottlenecks: Restricts evacuation of renewable energy from generation sites.
    4. Financial Burden: Requires large-scale investments, e.g., battery storage expansion needing ~₹3 lakh crore.
    5. Operational Costs: Increases costs due to backup fossil-based power for intermittency.

    Does renewable energy expansion fully address India’s climate goals?

    1. Intermittency Challenge: Reduces reliability due to solar/wind variability.
    2. Curtailment Risk: Leads to underutilisation of installed RE capacity.
    3. Cost-effectiveness Debate: Questions viability when storage and backup costs are included.
    4. Hydropower Constraints: Limits expansion due to environmental and regulatory challenges.

    How does global climate ambition interact with India’s development needs?

    1. 1.5°C Target Pressure: Requires deeper cuts beyond current NDC trajectory.
    2. Equity Principle: Demands consideration of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR).
    3. Industrial Growth Needs: Necessitates expansion in manufacturing and infrastructure sectors.
    4. Urbanisation Demand: Increases energy consumption due to rising living standards.

    What are the financial and institutional gaps in India’s climate strategy?

    1. Climate Finance Deficit: Limits implementation due to lack of adequate global funding.
    2. Technology Access Barriers: Restricts adoption of advanced clean technologies.
    3. Institutional Coordination: Creates challenges across sectors like energy, transport, and industry.
    4. Global Cooperation Gaps: Weakens support due to inadequate commitments by developed nations.

    Should India increase its climate ambition further?

    1. Feasibility Concerns: Questions practicality given structural constraints.
    2. Cost Implications: Raises economic burden without assured external support.
    3. Strategic Positioning: Suggests calibrated approach using “national circumstances” principle.
    4. Global Inequity: Highlights disproportionate burden-sharing by developing countries. 

    Conclusion

    India’s updated NDCs reflect a calibrated balance between climate responsibility and developmental priorities. While ambition has increased, structural constraints in finance, technology, and energy systems necessitate a cautious approach. Future climate action must align with equity, global support, and domestic growth imperatives.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Linkage: The question directly links to India’s updated NDCs as both focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions through global commitments and national targets under UNFCCC frameworks. It is relevant as it helps analyze how India balances emission reduction obligations (Kyoto/Paris) with developmental priorities, as highlighted in the article.