Subject: Climate Change

Why in the News?

An unusual surge in temperatures across north and north-western India during February-March has raised concerns about shifting seasonal patterns. Several regions recorded temperatures 8-13°C above normal, bringing heat-wave-like conditions weeks before the usual onset of summer. The phenomenon has been linked to deficient winter rainfall and weak Western Disturbances, which are critical for regulating winter climate in north India. 

Why is India witnessing unusually high temperatures early this year?

1. Temperature Anomaly: Several regions recorded temperatures 8-13°C above normal, reaching heat-wave-like conditions in February-March.
2. Early Heat Conditions: Warm weather replaced cool winter days earlier than usual in northern and western India.
3. Rare Occurrence: A similar situation occurred three years ago, but such an early onset of summer remains relatively uncommon.
4. Regional Evidence:
   1. Shimla: 25.3°C (March 2026, highest recorded till March 8).
   2. Pahalgam: 22.7°C.
   3. Gulmarg: 17.2°C.
   4. Srinagar: 24.7°C.

Climatological Significance: Heat waves are generally uncommon in high-altitude regions such as Shimla in March.

How did weak Western Disturbances influence the winter climate?

1. Western Disturbances: East-moving rain-bearing weather systems originating beyond Iran and drawing moisture from the Mediterranean Sea and other water bodies.
2. Seasonal Importance: These systems normally bring winter rainfall and snowfall across northern India.
3. Deficiency Since November 2025: Reduced frequency and intensity of Western Disturbances led to lower winter precipitation.
4. IMD Observation: Meteorologists noted lack of wind convergence between westerly and easterly winds, reducing moisture transport into north and central India.
5. Temperature Regulation: Winter precipitation normally moderates temperatures by maintaining soil moisture and atmospheric cooling.

Why was the winter of 2026 considered unusually dry?

1. Rainfall Deficit: All-India rainfall during January-February was only 16 mm, which is 60% below normal.
2. Historical Context: February 2026 became the third driest February since 1901.
3. Snowfall Decline: Both snowfall and rainfall remained subdued across Himalayan regions.
4. Meteorological Cause: Persistent lack of favourable weather systems during winter months.

How does a dry winter accelerate the onset of summer?

1. Soil Moisture Deficit: Reduced rainfall leaves soil dry and unable to moderate temperature increases.
2. Evaporation Mechanism: Moist soils normally evaporate moisture before heating up, delaying temperature rise.
3. Rapid Surface Heating: Dry soils heat faster, increasing land surface temperature and accelerating summer conditions.
4. Climate Feedback: Dry land conditions amplify regional warming and heat stress.

What are the implications for agriculture and water resources?

1. Impact on Rabi Crops: Sudden temperature spikes affect mustard, wheat, gram, groundnut, sesame, sorghum, and sunflower.
2. Horticulture Stress: Crops such as potatoes and apples may suffer due to heat stress.
3. Irrigation Demand: Farmers have been advised to increase irrigation frequency to maintain soil moisture.
4. Water Resource Pressure: Increased irrigation demand may strain local groundwater and water reserves.

What do temperature records indicate about changing climatic patterns?

1. Temperature Extremes: High temperatures in Himalayan regions during early March indicate increasing climate variability.
2. Comparison with Past Years:
   1. 2026: Shimla 25.3°C, Pahalgam 22.7°C, Gulmarg 17.2°C, Srinagar 24.7°C.
   2. 2025: Shimla 24.4°C, Pahalgam 20.4°C.
   3. 2024: Shimla 24.8°C.
3. Climate Signal: Frequent anomalies suggest greater unpredictability in seasonal transitions.

Conclusion

The early onset of summer in India highlights the critical role of winter rainfall and Western Disturbances in maintaining seasonal balance. Reduced precipitation has accelerated land heating and increased agricultural vulnerability. Strengthening climate monitoring, improving irrigation management, and integrating seasonal forecasting into agricultural planning are essential to mitigate the impacts of such climatic anomalies.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] Climate Change’ is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How will Himalayan and coastal states of India be affected?

Linkage: The early onset of summer due to weak winter rains and Western Disturbances reflects climate variability affecting Himalayan regions, highlighting changing temperature and precipitation patterns.

Why in the News?

The Union Budget has, for the first time, made a large, dedicated fiscal commitment of ₹20,000 crore to carbon capture, utilisation and storage. This marks a shift from pilot-driven experimentation to scale-oriented deployment. The urgency is underscored by global data showing 1 billion tonnes of annual CO₂ capture required by 2030, while only 50 million tonnes are currently captured worldwide. India’s net-zero pathway increasingly depends on CCUS as emissions from cement, steel and chemicals cannot be eliminated through renewable energy substitution alone.

What is Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage?

1. It refers to technologies that capture CO₂ from industrial processes, transport it, and either store it in geological formations or convert it into useful products.
2. Process Stages: CCUS involves capturing carbon dioxide (via post-combustion, pre-combustion, or oxy-fuel combustion), transporting it, and either using it for industrial applications or storing it permanently
3. Role in Climate Change: It is essential for decarbonizing “hard-to-abate” sectors, including steel, cement, and chemical production, which account for significant global emissions.
4. Carbon Removal: CCUS enables negative emissions through technologies like Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Direct Air Capture (DACCS).
5. Challenges: High capital costs, energy intensity (high auxiliary power consumption), safety concerns, and infrastructure needs for transport are major bottlenecks.

What Does Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage Involve?

1. Carbon Capture: Enables separation of CO₂ from industrial exhaust streams in cement, steel, power and refining operations.
2. Carbon Storage: Facilitates long-term containment of CO₂ in geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
3. Carbon Utilisation: Supports conversion of captured CO₂ into chemicals and industrial inputs, reducing fresh fossil use.

Why Is CCUS Critical for Achieving Net-Zero?

1. Hard-to-Abate Emissions: Addresses emissions that arise from chemical reactions in cement and steel, not from fuel combustion.
2. Limits of Renewables: Recognises that shifting to renewable electricity does not eliminate process emissions in heavy industry.
3. Climate Mitigation: Enables deep emissions reduction without compromising industrial output and economic growth.

What Is the Current Global Status of Carbon Capture?

1. Operational Capacity: Includes 45 commercial CCUS facilities worldwide.
2. Captured Volume: Accounts for only 50 million tonnes of CO₂ annually, far below climate targets.
3. 2030 Requirement: Indicates a need for 1 billion tonnes of CO₂ capture per year by 2030 to align with net-zero pathways.
4. Deployment Gap: Highlights a sharp mismatch between climate targets and present technological scale.

What Is the Status of CCUS Technologies in India?

1. Pilot Projects: Includes initiatives by Tata Steel, Dalmia Cement, NTPC, ONGC, focusing on capture feasibility.
2. Research Ecosystem: Involves dozens of research groups working on capture materials and processes.
3. Institutional Leadership: Anchored by Centres of Excellence at Indian Institute of Technology Bombay and Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, focusing on indigenous CCUS solutions.
4. Readiness Gap: Indicates laboratory-level maturity but limited field-scale testing.

How Does the Union Budget Change the CCUS Landscape?

1. Fiscal Allocation: Provides ₹20,000 crore for CCUS technology development and deployment.
2. Scale Transition: Signals movement from pilot projects to industrial demonstration.
3. Cost Reduction: Aims to address high capital and operational costs that restrict commercial viability.
4. Industrial Adoption: Targets steel, cement, refineries and chemicals as early adopters.

Why Are Certain Industries Central to CCUS Deployment?

1. Cement Sector: Generates CO₂ as an inherent by-product of limestone calcination.
2. Steel Sector: Emits carbon through coke-based reduction processes.
3. Chemical and Refining Industries: Produce process emissions independent of energy source.
4. Competitiveness: Aligns emission reduction with global trade requirements, including carbon border measures.

What Are the Economic and Strategic Benefits of CCUS?

1. Industrial Continuity: Enables emission reduction without relocating or shutting down core industries.
2. Global Competitiveness: Reduces exposure to mechanisms such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.
3. Technology Leadership: Positions India as a developer, not just adopter, of CCUS technologies.
4. Cost Containment: Prevents loss of competitiveness from carbon-intensive exports.

Conclusion

CCUS is not a substitute for renewable energy but a necessary complement for India’s net-zero strategy. The Budget’s ₹20,000 crore allocation marks a decisive shift from experimentation to scale. However, success depends on rapid field deployment, cost reduction, and industry integration to ensure CCUS delivers measurable emissions reduction by 2030.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2025] What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? What is the potential role of CCUS in tackling climate change? 

Linkage: This question is directly linked to GS III (Environment, Climate Change, Clean Technologies), reflecting UPSC’s focus on technological pathways for achieving net-zero and decarbonising hard-to-abate industries.

Why in the news?

A 2024 study in Ecology and Evolution reports that insects such as ladybirds and dragonflies in temperate regions are turning lighter due to frequent heatwaves. Over half of the world’s oceans have become greener in the last two decades. Forests are turning browner. Coral reefs, including those in Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep, are facing repeated bleaching. These visible colour changes reflect large-scale climate stress on ecosystems.

What is Ecological discolouration?

Ecological discolouration refers to measurable changes in the natural colour patterns of ecosystems caused by environmental stress. It can be caused by:

1. Pigment Alteration: Changes in the concentration or type of biological pigments like chlorophyll (green in plants/algae), melanin (darker tones in animals), and carotenoids (yellow/orange) often due to UV exposure or nutrient shifts.
2. Symbiotic Loss: The most prominent example is coral bleaching, where corals expel their colorful symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) due to thermal stress, leaving behind a white skeleton.
3. Species Composition Shifts: The replacement of native species with others such as invasive toxic dinoflagellates or algae blooms can physically change the color of water bodies or forests.
4. Biogeochemical Disruptions: Alterations in cycles (like nitrogen or carbon) can lead to soil or water changes, such as the formation of dark terra preta soils or anaerobic “black spots” in marine sediments.

Functions in Ecology

1. Early-Warning Indicator: Visible fading or darkening provides an immediate signal of ecosystem instability.
2. Stress Proxy: It serves as a measurable metric for temperature stress, chemical pollution, and habitat degradation.
3. Biodiversity Marker: Mapping color variations across a landscape helps scientists track the loss or gain of biodiversity in real-time

How is climate change altering ocean colour?

1. Ocean Greening: Over 50% of global oceans have become greener in the last two decades.
2. Algal Proliferation: Greener waters indicate increased algal presence.
3. Sunlight Blockage: Algae reduce water clarity and limit sunlight penetration.
4. Oxygen Depletion: Decomposition of algal blooms lowers oxygen levels, harming marine organisms.

What is Coral bleaching?

It is when corals expel the colorful, nutrient-providing algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues due to stress, turning them white, but they aren’t dead yet. Prolonged stress from rising ocean temperatures (climate change) or other factors like pollution causes them to starve and potentially die, leading to reef ecosystem collapse.

What happens during bleaching?

1. Stress triggers expulsion: Corals are stressed by changes in water temperature (usually warming), light, salinity, or nutrients.
2. Algae leave: Stressed corals expel the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) that live within them and provide food and color.
3. Coral turns white: Without the algae, the coral’s transparent tissue reveals its white skeleton, making it appear “bleached”.

How does coral bleaching reflect marine ecosystem stress?

1. Indian Reef Impact: Bleaching reported in Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
2. Thermal Stress Mechanism: Corals expel symbiotic algae under heat stress, turning white.
3. Mortality Risk: Repeated bleaching increases coral death probability.
4. Ecosystem Disruption: Coral reefs support marine biodiversity and fisheries.

What does forest browning indicate?

1. Vegetation Stress: Forests are turning browner due to climate stress and habitat degradation.
2. Pigment Reduction: Chlorophyll loss reflects reduced photosynthetic efficiency.
3. Habitat Instability: Browning signals declining ecosystem resilience.

How are insects adapting through pigmentation change?

1. 2024 Study Finding: Ladybirds and dragonflies in temperate northern regions are becoming lighter.
2. Heatwave Response: Lighter pigmentation reflects sunlight and prevents overheating.
3. Melanin Composition:
   1. Eumelanin: Produces brown/black shades; absorbs more heat.
   2. Pheomelanin: Produces yellow/red tones.
4. Reproductive Impact: Pigmentation shifts may affect mating patterns and reproductive timing.

What historical example shows climate-driven colour adaptation?

Climate-driven colour adaptation refers to the process where, in response to changing environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, UV radiation) caused by climate change, species evolve or plastically alter their body or flower pigmentation to improve survival, thermoregulation, or reproduction.

1. Industrial Revolution Case: Soot darkened tree bark.
2. Peppered Moth Shift: Dark variants survived due to improved camouflage; light variants declined.
3. Adaptive Principle: Species become darker in colder climates and lighter in warmer conditions. 
4. Butterflies (Colias meadii): A long-term study (1953-2012) showed that wing melanization in these butterflies decreased with increasing temperature, but this pattern varied by region, showing higher melanism in the hotter southern USA.

How does deforestation affect species colour diversity?

1. Amazon Study (Biodiversity and Conservation): Deforestation reduces bright colour displays in butterflies.
2. Habitat Disturbance Effect: Disturbed forests show less diverse butterfly palettes.
3. Regeneration Signal: Naturally regenerated Amazon forests show improvement in colour diversity.

What are the ecological implications?

1. Camouflage Disruption: Alters predator-prey balance.
2. Thermoregulation Shift: Pigmentation change modifies heat absorption.
3. Biodiversity Indicator: Colour variation reflects ecosystem health.
4. Systemic Climate Signal: Large-scale discolouration indicates long-term environmental stress.

Conclusion

Ecological discolouration represents a visible manifestation of climate-induced ecosystem stress. Ocean greening, forest browning, coral bleaching, and pigmentation shifts in species indicate disruption in biological processes and habitat stability. These changes signal declining ecosystem resilience and rising vulnerability to extreme climatic events. Monitoring such colour shifts can function as an early warning tool for biodiversity loss and guide targeted climate adaptation and conservation strategies.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

Linkage: Climate change impact is a recurring GS-3 theme linking environment, disaster vulnerability, and sustainable development. Coral bleaching, ocean warming, and marine ecosystem stress are important for coastal impact analysis, while Himalayan glacier melt, altered monsoons, and extreme events are crucial dimensions when examining climate change effects in India.

Why in the News?

The Union Budget has, for the first time, made a large, dedicated fiscal commitment of ₹20,000 crore to carbon capture, utilisation and storage. This marks a shift from pilot-driven experimentation to scale-oriented deployment. The urgency is underscored by global data showing 1 billion tonnes of annual CO₂ capture required by 2030, while only 50 million tonnes are currently captured worldwide. India’s net-zero pathway increasingly depends on CCUS as emissions from cement, steel and chemicals cannot be eliminated through renewable energy substitution alone.

What is Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage?

1. It refers to technologies that capture CO₂ from industrial processes, transport it, and either store it in geological formations or convert it into useful products.
2. Process Stages: CCUS involves capturing carbon dioxide (via post-combustion, pre-combustion, or oxy-fuel combustion), transporting it, and either using it for industrial applications or storing it permanently
3. Role in Climate Change: It is essential for decarbonizing “hard-to-abate” sectors, including steel, cement, and chemical production, which account for significant global emissions.
4. Carbon Removal: CCUS enables negative emissions through technologies like Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Direct Air Capture (DACCS).
5. Challenges: High capital costs, energy intensity (high auxiliary power consumption), safety concerns, and infrastructure needs for transport are major bottlenecks.

What Does Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage Involve?

1. Carbon Capture: Enables separation of CO₂ from industrial exhaust streams in cement, steel, power and refining operations.
2. Carbon Storage: Facilitates long-term containment of CO₂ in geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
3. Carbon Utilisation: Supports conversion of captured CO₂ into chemicals and industrial inputs, reducing fresh fossil use.

Why Is CCUS Critical for Achieving Net-Zero?

1. Hard-to-Abate Emissions: Addresses emissions that arise from chemical reactions in cement and steel, not from fuel combustion.
2. Limits of Renewables: Recognises that shifting to renewable electricity does not eliminate process emissions in heavy industry.
3. Climate Mitigation: Enables deep emissions reduction without compromising industrial output and economic growth.

What Is the Current Global Status of Carbon Capture?

1. Operational Capacity: Includes 45 commercial CCUS facilities worldwide.
2. Captured Volume: Accounts for only 50 million tonnes of CO₂ annually, far below climate targets.
3. 2030 Requirement: Indicates a need for 1 billion tonnes of CO₂ capture per year by 2030 to align with net-zero pathways.
4. Deployment Gap: Highlights a sharp mismatch between climate targets and present technological scale.

What Is the Status of CCUS Technologies in India?

1. Pilot Projects: Includes initiatives by Tata Steel, Dalmia Cement, NTPC, ONGC, focusing on capture feasibility.
2. Research Ecosystem: Involves dozens of research groups working on capture materials and processes.
3. Institutional Leadership: Anchored by Centres of Excellence at Indian Institute of Technology Bombay and Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, focusing on indigenous CCUS solutions.
4. Readiness Gap: Indicates laboratory-level maturity but limited field-scale testing.

How Does the Union Budget Change the CCUS Landscape?

1. Fiscal Allocation: Provides ₹20,000 crore for CCUS technology development and deployment.
2. Scale Transition: Signals movement from pilot projects to industrial demonstration.
3. Cost Reduction: Aims to address high capital and operational costs that restrict commercial viability.
4. Industrial Adoption: Targets steel, cement, refineries and chemicals as early adopters.

Why Are Certain Industries Central to CCUS Deployment?

1. Cement Sector: Generates CO₂ as an inherent by-product of limestone calcination.
2. Steel Sector: Emits carbon through coke-based reduction processes.
3. Chemical and Refining Industries: Produce process emissions independent of energy source.
4. Competitiveness: Aligns emission reduction with global trade requirements, including carbon border measures.

What Are the Economic and Strategic Benefits of CCUS?

1. Industrial Continuity: Enables emission reduction without relocating or shutting down core industries.
2. Global Competitiveness: Reduces exposure to mechanisms such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.
3. Technology Leadership: Positions India as a developer, not just adopter, of CCUS technologies.
4. Cost Containment: Prevents loss of competitiveness from carbon-intensive exports.

Conclusion

CCUS is not a substitute for renewable energy but a necessary complement for India’s net-zero strategy. The Budget’s ₹20,000 crore allocation marks a decisive shift from experimentation to scale. However, success depends on rapid field deployment, cost reduction, and industry integration to ensure CCUS delivers measurable emissions reduction by 2030.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2025] What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? What is the potential role of CCUS in tackling climate change? 

Linkage: This question is directly linked to GS III (Environment, Climate Change, Clean Technologies), reflecting UPSC’s focus on technological pathways for achieving net-zero and decarbonising hard-to-abate industries.