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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Species in news: Nilgiri Tahr

    nilgiri tahr

    Central Idea

    • In a continued effort to conserve the Nilgiri Tahr, Tamil Nadu launched Project Nilgiri Tahr last year.
    • Now, the state is focusing on establishing a standardized protocol with Kerala for counting the population of this endangered species.

    About Nilgiri Tahr

    IUCN Conservation Status: Endangered

    Wildlife (Protection) Act of India, 1972: Schedule I

    • It is endemic to the Nilgiri Hills and the southern portion of the Western Ghats in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India.
    • It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu.
    • The Nilgiri tahr inhabits the open montane grassland habitat of the South Western Ghats montane rain forests eco-region.
    • At elevations from 1,200 to 2,600 metres (3,900 to 8,500 ft), the forests open into grasslands interspersed with pockets of stunted forests, locally known as sholas.
    • Eravikulam National Park is home to the largest population of this Tahr.
    • It is estimated that there are 3,122 Nilgiri Tahrs in the wild. It has become locally extinct in around 14% of its traditional shola forest-grassland habitat.

     

    Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project

    • Under The Nilgiri Tahr project, TN government plans to develop a better understanding of the Nilgiri Tahr population through-
    1. Surveys and radio telemetry studies;
    2. Reintroduce the Tahrs to their historical habitat;
    3. Address proximate threats; and
    4. Increase public awareness of the species.
    • The project is to be implemented from 2022 to 2027.
    • Furthermore, October 7 will be celebrated as ‘Niligiri Tahr Day’ in honour of E.R.C. Davidar, who was responsible for pioneering one of the first studies of the species in 1975.

    Historic significance of Nilgiri Tahr

    • There are multiple references to the Nilgiri Tahr in Tamil Sangam literature dating back to 2,000 years.
    • The late Mesolithic (10,000-4,000 BC) paintings highlight the significance of the Tahr in folklore, culture and life.
    • It was designated as the State animal in recognition of its ecological and cultural significance.

  • India’s Reforestation Legacy: A 200-Year Experiment

    reforestation

    Central Idea

    • India’s extensive history of tree planting spanning over two centuries offers valuable lessons on the consequences of various approaches to restoring forests.

    Plantations in Colonial-Era India

    • British Influence: From the mid-18th century, the East India Company and later, the British Crown, held sway over India’s affairs. During this period, British authorities directed their attention to India’s forests to meet their substantial timber needs for railway sleepers and shipbuilding.
    • Indian Forest Act of 1865: To secure a steady supply of high-yield timber trees like teak, sal, and deodar, the British enacted the Indian Forest Act of 1865. This act placed many forests under state ownership and curtailed local communities’ rights to harvest beyond grass and bamboo, even restricting cattle grazing. In response, some Indian communities resorted to burning down forests.
    • Proliferation of Teak Monocultures: Teak, well-suited to India’s hot and humid climate and prized for its durable timber, spread aggressively. This led to the transformation of pristine grasslands and open scrub forests into teak monocultures, displacing native hardwood trees like sal.
    • Introduction of Exotic Trees: Exotic species like eucalyptus, pines from Europe and North America, and acacia trees from Australia were introduced for timber, fodder, and fuel. The introduction of wattle in 1861 in the Nilgiris district of the Western Ghats marked the beginning of its invasion of this ecologically significant region.
    • Ecosystem Transformations: These introduced species, especially wattle and pine, began to displace native vegetation, impacting the ecology and livelihoods of local communities. The loss of native oak and sal trees, essential for various purposes, further exacerbated these challenges.

    Importance of Studying Past Tree Plantation Efforts

    • Regeneration Strategies: Historical strategies for natural forest regeneration have reduced carbon emissions, boosted biodiversity, and created livelihood opportunities.
    • Global Tree Cover Initiatives: Past efforts also highlight the need to differentiate between reforestation for timber production and carbon offsetting. The latter often involves planting fast-growing trees to generate timber and certify carbon credits for emission offsets.
    • Sustainable Practices: Planting trees on farms and barren lands to provide firewood and timber eased the pressure on natural forests and aided their recovery.
    • Unintended Consequences: The introduction of exotic species without thorough research can lead to invasive species and dispossess local communities of their land and resources.

    Current Restoration Efforts in India

    • Indian Commitment: India has pledged to restore around 21 million hectares of forest by 2030 under the Bonn Challenge, a global initiative aiming to restore degraded and deforested landscapes.
    • Focus on Single Species Plantations: To achieve the National Forest Policy target of a 33% forest cover, India has focused on planting single species like eucalyptus or bamboo, which grow quickly and increase tree cover.

    Impact on People and Environment

    • Concerns for Indigenous People: Afforestation in grassland ecosystems, naturally low in tree cover, may harm rural and indigenous communities. The Forest Rights Act of 2006 empowers village assemblies to manage traditional forest areas.
    • Risk of Invasive Species: The continued planting of exotic trees risks the emergence of new invasive species, similar to the wattle invasion two centuries ago.

    Case Studies

    • Community-Led Restoration: Gram Sabhas in the Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra have restored degraded forests, managing them sustainably as a source of tendu leaves used to wrap bidis (Indian tobacco).
    • Invasive Species Control: Communities in Kachchh, Gujarat, restored grasslands by removing the invasive Gando Bawal tree introduced by British foresters in the late 19th century.

    Future Considerations

    • Holistic Approach: Policies should encourage both natural forest regeneration and plantations for timber and fuel while assessing their impact on people and ecosystems.
    • Local Implications: Assess the impact of afforestation on forest rights, local livelihoods, biodiversity, and carbon storage. Scale up successful restoration practices by communities.
    • Reviving Ecosystems: Policymakers should prioritize the revival of ecosystems with a limited number of tree species, emphasizing environmental benefits over forest canopy extent.

    Conclusion

    • India’s historical journey in tree planting offers valuable insights into the complexities and consequences of reforestation efforts.
    • By learning from the past, India can develop more sustainable and inclusive strategies for restoring its forests, addressing the needs of both the environment and its diverse communities.

  • Laws governing forests of Northeast India

    forest

    Central Idea

    Why discuss this?

    • The amendment permits the diversion of forest land for certain projects near international borders without forest clearance under the Forest (Conservation) Act (FCA) 1980.
    • Other Northeastern states, including Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram, and Sikkim, governed by the ruling govt at centre or its allies, have also objected to the 100-km exemption clause.

    Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill, 2023
    Objective Clarify and enhance the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
    Scope Applicability to land designated as forest since 1980
    Exemptions Land within 100 km of borders for national security, roadside amenities, and public roads
    Assignment of Forest Land Prior approval required from central government for all entities
    Permitted Activities Expanded to include check posts, fencing, bridges, zoos, safaris, and eco-tourism facilities

     

    Is FCA Applicable to the Northeast?

    • Constitutional protections like Article 371A for Nagaland and 371G for Mizoram prohibit the application of certain laws enacted by Parliament in these states.
    • In 1986, Nagaland extended the FCA’s application to specific forests, but its status remains uncertain due to conflicting ministry statements.
    • Mizoram, since becoming a state in 1986, has the FCA in force, covering a significant portion of its forest areas.

    FCA Application in the Rest of the Northeast

    • The FCA is applicable in the rest of the Northeast, including Meghalaya, Tripura, Assam, Manipur, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
    • The FCA clearance process differs among these states.

    Conclusion

    • Protecting Northeastern forests requires a balance between legal frameworks like the FCA and FRA.
    • Clear guidelines and proactive measures can safeguard both forest rights and the environment in the region.

  • Ecocide Laws: Protecting Nature and Addressing Limitations

    ecocide

    Central Idea

    • Mexico’s ‘Maya train’ project has generated controversy due to its scale and environmental impact.
    • The project aims to connect tourists to historic Maya sites across a 1,525 km route, with a cost of $20 billion.
    • Critics have dubbed it a “megaproject of death” for its threats to the Yucatan peninsula’s environment, Indigenous communities, and cave systems, leading to accusations of ecocide and ethnocide.

    Understanding Ecocide

    • Ecocide, derived from Greek and Latin, means “killing one’s home” or “environment.”
    • It encompasses actions like port expansions damaging marine life, deforestation, illegal sand-mining, and polluting rivers.
    • Several countries, including Mexico, are considering ecocide legislation, with calls to elevate it to an international crime akin to genocide.
    • There is no universally accepted legal definition of ecocide.
    • A proposed definition states it as “unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge of causing substantial, severe, and either widespread or long-term environmental damage.

    Historical Context

    • Biologist Arthur Galston in 1970 linked environmental destruction with genocide during the Vietnam War’s Agent Orange use.
    • British lawyer Polly Higgins advocated for ecocide as an international crime in 2010.
    • The Rome Statute of the ICC deals with four major crimes but only holds perpetrators accountable for intentional wartime environmental damage.

    Importance of Ecocide as a Crime

    • Ecocide is a crime in 11 countries, with 27 others considering similar laws.
    • The European Parliament voted unanimously to include ecocide in law.
    • Ecocide laws provide a crucial legal instrument to protect the environment.
    • They can hold individuals in corporate leadership accountable and promote ethical investment practices.
    • These laws could offer justice to low- and middle-income countries disproportionately affected by climate change.

    Limitations and Concerns

    • Some argue that ecocide definitions are ambiguous, setting a low threshold for implicating entities.
    • The concept might unintentionally suggest it’s acceptable to destroy the environment for human benefit.
    • Proving ecocide may be challenging, especially for transnational crimes involving corporations.
    • The ICC’s limited jurisdiction, inability to hold corporate entities liable, and uneven track record in securing convictions are concerns.

    India’s Stance

    • India has recognized the legal personhood of nature in some judgments.
    • Some Indian judgments have used the term ‘ecocide,’ but it hasn’t fully materialized in law.
    • India’s legislative framework includes various environmental laws, which need consolidation and streamlining.
    • The National Green Tribunal lacks jurisdiction over certain critical environmental matters.
    • Addressing issues of liability and compensation remains a challenge, as seen in cases like the Bhopal gas disaster and CAMPA fund misuse.
    • India should align its environmental laws with the concept of ecocide.

    Conclusion

    • Ecocide laws are crucial for protecting the environment and holding perpetrators accountable.
    • However, challenges in defining, proving, and enforcing ecocide must be addressed.
    • India needs to update its environmental laws to incorporate ecocide principles, promoting a more comprehensive approach to environmental protection.

  • Progress track: National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

    Central Idea

    • The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) aims to clean the Ganga River by treating sewage generated in five major states through sewage treatment plants (STPs) and sewerage networks.
    • Over seven years, NMCG has achieved 20% sewage treatment capacity, with a target of 60% by December 2026.

    About National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

    Objective Restore and rejuvenate the Ganga River and its tributaries, ensuring their ecological and geological health
    Formation Year 2014
    Nodal Agency Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India
    Coverage Encompasses Ganga and its major tributaries
    Key Areas Pollution control, riverfront development, biodiversity conservation, afforestation, and public awareness
    Projects Ghat and crematoria development, sewage treatment plants, river surface cleaning, and more
    Holistic Approach Integrates various government initiatives, stakeholders, and public participation
    Collaborations Partnerships with state governments, NGOs, international agencies, and private sector
    Legal Measures National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) established for river protection
    Significance Addresses ecological, social, and cultural aspects while ensuring sustainable water quality

    Current and Future Sewage Treatment Capacity

    • As of now, NMCG treats about 20% of sewage generated in the Ganga river basin.
    • The treatment capacity is projected to reach 33% by 2024 and 60% by December 2026.
    • Sewage generation is estimated at 11,765 million litres per day (MLD) across five states: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.

    Role of NMCG

    • NMCG aims to prevent untreated sewage from flowing into the Ganga River.
    • The 11,765 MLD projection includes sewage generated within the states but not necessarily flowing into the river.
    • NMCG’s plan includes setting up 7,000 MLD sewage treatment capacity by 2026.

    Projects and Progress

    • STPs and sewerage networks constitute about 80% of the NMCG project.
    • By July 2023, functional STPs treat 2,665 MLD, with 1,455 MLD added in the last financial year.
    • Delayed projects resulted from land acquisition issues and revisions in Detailed Project Reports.

    State-wise Distribution

    • Most STPs are in Uttarakhand (36), followed by Uttar Pradesh (35) and West Bengal (11).
    • Despite NMCG’s ₹20,000 crore budget, in-principle approval has been given for projects worth ₹37,396 crore, with ₹14,745 crore released for infrastructure work by June 2023.

    Conclusion

    • NMCG’s progress signifies a positive trajectory in Ganga River restoration, reflected in improved water quality and enhanced aquatic life.
    • The mission’s efforts continue to tackle sewage treatment challenges and promote cleaner water resources.

  • Illicit Red Sand Boa Trade in India

    red sand boa

    Central Idea

    • A recent report by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)-India exposes 172 incidents of red sand boa (Eryx johnii) seizures spanning 2016-2021.
    • It is illicitly traded under the notion of its role in black magic practices.

    About Red Sand Boa

    • The Red Sand Boa is a rare non-poisonous snake with applications in medicine, cosmetics, and even black magic, making it highly valued in the global market.
    • Among the general public, it is referred to as the “Two-headed Snake” due to its thick tail with a rounded tip, resembling two heads.

    Conservation Status

    • Trading and possessing the red sand boa violate the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
    • The species is categorized in Schedule IV of the WPA.
    • Additionally, the red sand boa is listed in Appendix II of CITES.
    • It holds a ‘Near Threatened’ classification by the IUCN, with a diminishing population trend.

    Prime moving factor for trade: Social Media

    • The study underscores the pivotal role of social media, particularly platforms like YouTube, as conduits for illegal trade.
    • YouTube videos act as interfaces for buyers and sellers, occasionally facilitating transactions via WhatsApp.
    • In 2021, approximately 200 videos advertising sand boas for sale on YouTube were identified.

  • Places in news: Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary         

    Hollongapar

    Central Idea

    • The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary in Assam, home to the endangered western hoolock gibbon, is facing habitat fragmentation due to a railway track that divides the sanctuary.

    Hoolock Gibbons

    • They are a unique primate species, inhabit various regions across India’s northeastern part, particularly in states like Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
    • These arboreal creatures are known for their distinctive vocalizations and tree-dwelling behavior.
    • There are two recognized species of hoolock gibbons found in India: the eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys) and the western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock).
    • These gibbons play an essential role in the ecosystem by aiding in seed dispersal and maintaining forest health.

    Conservation status

    • IUCN Red List:
      1. Western Hoolock Gibbon: Classified as Endangered
      2. Eastern Hoolock Gibbon: Classified as Vulnerable
    • Indian (Wildlife) Protection Act 1972: both listed on Schedule 1 of the

    About Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary

    • The HGS is located in the Jorhat district of Assam, India.
    • It was established in 1997 as a protected area primarily to conserve the western hoolock gibbon, an endangered primate species.
    • The sanctuary covers an area of approximately 20.98 square kilometers.
    • Set aside initially in 1881, its forests used to extend to the foothills of the Patkai mountain range.
    • It contains India’s only gibbons – the hoolock gibbons, and Northeastern India’s only nocturnal primate – the Bengal slow loris.

  • State of India’s Birds (SoIB) Report, 2023: Key Highlights

    bird

    Central Idea

    • The State of India’s Birds (SoIB) report based on data collected from approximately 30,000 birdwatchers has unveiled concerning trends regarding India’s bird population.
    • The study highlights a substantial decline in numerous bird species, attributing this decline to a range of factors.

    About SoIB Report

    • The SoIB report aims to evaluate the conservation status of a wide range of species regularly present in India.
    • It is published by a partnership involving 13 governmental and non-governmental organizations, including SACON, WII, and ZSI.
    • The report extensively employs data from over 30 million observations on eBird by more than 30,000 birdwatchers.
    • The report assesses distribution range size, abundance trends over the long term and since 2015, and information from the IUCN Red List to categorize Indian species into Low, Moderate, and High Conservation Priority tiers.

    Key Highlights of the Report

    • Widespread Decline: Among the species analyzed, 60% of those assessed for long-term trends show decline, while 40% exhibit a decline in current annual trends.
    • Raptors and Vultures: Birds consuming vertebrates and carrion, including raptors and vultures, have significantly declined, possibly due to pollutants or prey availability reduction.
    • Endemics and Biodiversity Hotspots: Endemic species in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot have experienced rapid declines over the past decades.
    • Positive Outlook: Certain generalist species, exemplified by the Indian peafowl, demonstrate remarkable increases in abundance, with a 150% rise observed over the past decades.
    • Conservation Priority: The report classifies species into High, Moderate, and Low Conservation Priority, with 178 species as High Priority, 323 as Moderate, and 441 as Low Priority. Noteworthy species include the Ruddy shelduck, Indian courser, Narcondam hornbill, and Nicobar megapode.

    Identified Threats to Bird Species

    • The report underscores threats encompassing forest degradation, urbanization, energy infrastructure.
    • Birds are highly impacted by environmental pollutants like Nimesulide affecting vulture populations, climate change’s impacts on migratory species, avian diseases, and illegal hunting and trade.

    Actions and Research Implications

    • Targeted Conservation: The report advocates for the conservation of specific groups, such as grassland specialists that have suffered a more than 50% decline, highlighting the importance of protecting and preserving grassland ecosystems.
    • Long-Term Monitoring: The significance of continuous, systematic bird population monitoring is emphasized to comprehend subtle fluctuations in bird numbers.
    • In-Depth Research: Further research is needed to understand the causes behind both declines and increases in bird populations.
    • Synergy among Policies: The report calls for the harmonization of policies related to river, water, and wasteland development, recognizing the multifaceted role of abundant, widespread bird species.
    • Citizen Participation: Citizen Engagement plays a pivotal role in biodiversity conservation, warranting an essential role in the action plan for bird population and habitat preservation.

  • Role of Urban Form in Heat Resilience

    urban form

    Central Idea

    • A study conducted by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) in 2022 examines the relationship between diverse urban forms and their reactions to heat, offering insights that could guide India’s urban centers in combatting heat-related challenges.

    Distinct Urban Forms and Heat Resilience

    • Crucial Consideration: Urban form encompasses a city’s unique blend of natural and built components, shaping its activities and infrastructure.
    • Diverse Parameters: Urban form’s defining elements include urban morphology, aspect ratio, sky view factor (SVF), blue/green infrastructure (B/GI), floor space index (FSI), and street orientation.
    • Localized Study: CSE’s ongoing study focuses on 10 cities, such as Pune, Delhi, Kolkata, Bengaluru, and Jaipur, each revealing trends that could inform heat mitigation strategies.

    Unveiling Key Parameters and Findings

    • Urban Morphology: Varied urban morphologies, from open highrise to compact midrise, demonstrate lower land surface temperatures (LST) among heat pockets. Lowrise areas exhibit higher LST due to sparse vegetation and heat-trapping roofing materials, suggesting the potential for improvement.
    • Aspect Ratio: The ratio of building height to street width impacts heat retention. Higher aspect ratios correlate with lower LST, indicating the significance of narrower streets for reduced heat gain.
    • Sky View Factor: The visibility of sky between buildings influences heat dissipation. Elevated sky view factors increase LST by up to 10°C, highlighting the role of factors like road intersections and open parking lots.
    • Blue/Green Infrastructure: Vegetation significantly impacts microclimates. Effective vegetation cover (EVC), with a focus on trees, grass, and shrubs, can reduce LST by 2-4°C, demonstrating the need to prioritize tree-heavy greens.

    Policy Implications for Enhanced Heat Resilience

    • FSI and Urban Cooling: Higher floor space index (FSI) inversely correlates with LST, suggesting that denser urban configurations can alleviate heat.
    • Street Orientation: The orientation of streets affects sun exposure and wind, leading to differences in thermal comfort. North-south streets expose higher LST due to east-west sun exposure.
    • Contextual Cooling Solutions: Urban form-based codes can offer targeted cooling solutions. Diverse zones with customized regulations—shaded walkways, cool roofs, or high EVC—can cater to varied needs.

    Way Forward

    • Incorporating Learning: Urban planning must integrate findings from the study into building by-laws and master plans. Pune’s experience showcases the impact of SVF, aspect ratio, EVC, and urban morphology on heat gain.
    • Adaptation for Other Cities: Each city may face distinct drivers influencing heat resilience, necessitating customized solutions and urban planning modifications.
    • Economic Benefits: A 1°C temperature reduction corresponds to a 2% drop in the city’s power consumption, highlighting the financial advantages of heat mitigation strategies.

  • Fukushima Water Release: Facts and Controversies

    Fukushima

    Central Idea

    • Japan’s decision to release cooling water from the Fukushima nuclear power plant into the Pacific Ocean has sparked a complex debate.
    • Amidst concerns about radiation, environmental impact, and transparency, understanding the facts is vital.

    About Fukushima Disaster

    • The Fukushima disaster refers to a series of nuclear incidents that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Okuma, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan.
    • It followed the powerful earthquake and tsunami that struck on March 11, 2011.
    • The disaster resulted in the release of radioactive materials and had significant implications for both human health and the environment.
    • It is considered one of the most severe nuclear accidents in history, alongside the Chernobyl disaster.

    Why Fukushima Water is Being Released?

    • Storage Constraints: The Fukushima facility’s storage tanks are at full capacity due to the need for constant cooling of damaged reactors since the 2011 tsunami disaster.
    • Vast Water Volume: The plant requires 170 tons of cooling water daily, with rain and groundwater further exacerbating the issue. The site holds 1,343 million cubic meters of water across 1,046 storage tanks.
    • Release Process: Filtered water undergoes a one-kilometre tunnel before entering the Pacific Ocean. This process is expected to span 30 years while the radioactive waste remains on land.

    Regulatory Approval and Skepticism

    • Regulatory Endorsement: Both Japan’s atomic agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have approved the release, stating negligible radiological impact.
    • Skepticism and Concerns: Environmentalists, fishing experts, neighbouring states, and public sentiments accuse Japan of underplaying radiation levels. Concerns encompass ocean contamination, ecological harm, economic loss, and damage to reputation.

    Water Preparation and Tritium

    • Filter System: Contaminated water passes through the Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS), capable of filtering 62 radioactive elements but not tritium.
    • Tritium Dilution: The plant agency intends to dilute tritium concentration to 1,500 Becquerel per liter, a fraction of the safety standard, before releasing it.
    • Tritium Safety: Experts assert that tritium, a weak radioactive form of hydrogen, poses minimal risk as it emits weak beta particles, easily blocked by materials like plastic or skin.

    Pacific Ocean’s Role and Controversy

    • Dilution Principle: Experts stress that “the solution to pollution is dilution.” When water is sufficiently diluted, it becomes safe for both humans and the environment.
    • Tritium Focus and Critique: Greenpeace accuses the government and plant agency of focusing on tritium to divert attention from other radioactive elements that won’t be filtered out.
    • Alternatives and Considerations: Alternatives like additional tanks or evaporation exist. However, concerns over tank leaks and airborne radioactive releases complicate these options.

    Conclusion

    • The Fukushima water release debate presents a complex array of scientific, environmental, and geopolitical considerations.
    • Striking a balance between environmental preservation, public safety, and responsible nuclear waste management remains a challenging task.
    • As experts, activists, and governments deliberate, it’s essential to foster transparency, prioritize informed discussions, and seek solutions that minimize risks and promote global well-being.