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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Places in news: Kadalundi Mudflats

    Central Idea

    • Kadalundi’s mudflats are shrinking drastically with sands cover.
    • These mudflats have been a vital source of sustenance for thousands of migrant shorebirds, offering abundant prey like polychaetes and crustaceans.

    About Kadalundi Mudflats

    • Kadalundi Mudflats are situated in the Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary, which is located in the Kozhikode district of Kerala, along the southwestern coast of India. The sanctuary encompasses estuarine wetlands, mudflats, and mangrove forests.
    • The mudflats are part of the estuarine ecosystem formed at the confluence of the Kadalundi River and the Arabian Sea.
    • This unique environment is influenced by both freshwater from the river and saline water from the sea, creating a diverse habitat.

    Ecological significance

    • Kadalundi Mudflats are renowned for their rich biodiversity, especially in terms of avian species.
    • The Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary and the mudflats are protected under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
    • The mudflats serve as a critical habitat for various resident and migratory birds.
    • It is estimated that over 100 species of resident and migratory birds visit the area, making it a paradise for birdwatchers and ornithologists.
    • They are a crucial stopover point for migratory birds travelling along the East Asia-Australasia Flyway.

  • Understanding the Forest Conservation Amendment Act of 2023

    Central Idea

    • The Forest Conservation Amendment Act of 2023 has emerged with limited public discourse, raising concerns about its ramifications for forests and indigenous communities.
    • While aimed at addressing climate change and deforestation, the law’s provisions have sparked debates over forest utilization, economic gain, and the rights of forest dwellers, particularly indigenous communities.

    Forest Conservation Amendment Act, 2023: Key Provisions

    • Focus Areas: The amendment emphasizes climate change mitigation and effective forest management, while also promoting afforestation.
    • Jurisdiction Changes: The law restricts its applicability to areas categorized under the 1927 Forest Act and those designated as such after October 25, 1980.
    • Exemptions: Forests converted for non-forest use after December 12, 1996, and those within 100 kilometers of the China-Pakistan border for potential linear projects are exempt.
    • Security Measures: The central government gains authority to construct security infrastructure in areas up to ten hectares, even extending to vulnerable zones of up to five hectares.
    • Economic Initiatives: Initiatives like ecotourism, safari, and environmental entertainment may be implemented to enhance forest-dependent livelihoods.

    Motivation behind the Amendment

    • Godavarman Thirumulkpad Case: A landmark legal case in 1996 influenced the interpretation of forest land and led to the inclusion of private forests under the 1980 law.
    • Industrial Progress: Opposition to the law stemmed from concerns about hindering industrial growth and private landowners’ interests.
    • Debate and Controversy: The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill prompted extensive discussions but was passed with limited opposition, raising concerns among indigenous communities and human rights activists.

    Prior Consent and Indigenous Rights

    • Amendments in 2016 and 2017: These stipulated mandatory prior consent from tribal grama sabha for non-forest alterations, a provision now removed.
    • State-Level Engagement: State governments may involve grama sabhas in decisions related to land acquisition but might be cautious due to perceived hindrance to economic initiatives.
    • Impact on Forest Rights Act (FRA): FRA implementation has faced challenges, with governments preferring to limit forest areas rather than amend the Act to address Adivasi claims.

    Compensatory Afforestation Concerns

    • Ambiguities: Past issues with the Compensatory Afforestation Act have arisen from ambiguities and land shortages.
    • Environmental Implications: The new amendment mandates afforestation elsewhere for every parcel of land lost, but lacks specifications, leaving room for discretion.

    Forest Governance and Federal Norms

    • Afforestation vs. Forest Governance: Financial incentives for afforestation projects clash with forest governance principles, and concurrent list governance practices contradict federal norms.
    • Security and Environmental Concerns: While internal environmental security is crucial, it often takes a backseat to external security threats, impacting States prone to natural disasters.

    Conclusion

    • The Forest Conservation Amendment Act of 2023 raises complex issues related to forest governance, indigenous rights, and environmental security.
    • While aimed at addressing critical challenges, its implementation and impact on forest communities warrant careful consideration and debate to ensure a balanced approach to conservation and development.

  • Best of Both Sides: To combat pollution, use of personal vehicles must decrease

    Urban Air Pollution: Sources and Pollutants - Airqoon - Cost effective and easy to use air monitoring at scale

    Central idea

    Delhi grapples with severe smog, prompting emergency measures to curb pollution, including restricting vehicles. Despite past efforts to mitigate vehicular emissions, the city faces challenges in reducing dependence on personal vehicles. The article emphasizes the need for stronger political will, effective restraints, and enhanced public transport to address the persistent air quality and mobility crisis in Delhi.

    Key Highlights:

    • Delhi faces severe smog, prompting emergency measures to curb pollution, including restrictions on vehicles.
    • Vehicles contribute significantly to Delhi’s air pollution, with official data indicating a 40% emission of particulate load.
    • Despite previous efforts, vehicular emissions remain challenging to mitigate, with over 80 lakh on-road vehicles in Delhi.

    Challenges:

    • Cumulative emissions from increasing vehicle numbers and congestion undermine emission improvements per unit.
    • Personal automobile dependence persists, with a 47% growth in car numbers during 2022-23.
    • The shift to public transport is hindered by inadequate infrastructure, low passenger numbers per bus, and a lack of effective restraints on personal vehicle usage.

    Key Phrases:

    • “Crippling mobility crisis” in Delhi due to emergency measures restricting vehicles.
    • “Gut reaction” to underplay the role of vehicles in air pollution amid public criticism.

    Analysis: The article underscores the persistent challenge of vehicular emissions in Delhi, despite past efforts to curb pollution. It highlights the need for a substantial shift to public transport to address the mobility crisis and reduce dependence on personal vehicles.

    Key Data:

    • Over 80 lakh on-road vehicles in Delhi, with car numbers witnessing a 47% growth in 2022-23.
    • Transport diesel consumption reduced by 46% between 2014 and 2022.
    • Only 7,041 buses against the mandated 10,000, with a 48% drop in passengers carried per bus since 2017-18.

    Key Facts:

    • Despite emission improvements, Delhi’s air quality remains a concern, leading to emergency measures.
    • Public transport ridership faces challenges, with a drop in passengers per bus and increased empty kilometres.
    • The article emphasizes the need for stronger political will to restrain personal vehicle usage and promote public transport.

    Way Forward:

    • Strengthen political will to implement effective restraints on personal vehicle usage, such as parking rules and congestion pricing.
    • Focus on making integrated public transport more convenient, accessible, and affordable.
    • Implement scalable solutions, including a dense street network for walking and cycling, and housing closer to transit nodes.

  • India’s Air Quality Management needs Transboundary Accountability

    airshed

    Central Idea

    • The annual recurrence of ‘severe’ air quality levels in the Delhi-National Capital region and surrounding areas during winter often leads to the misconception that air pollution is a seasonal issue primarily driven by farm residue burning.
    • However, this perception falls short of the complex, year-round, multi-source, and multi-pollutant nature of the problem.

    This article highlights the need to adopt a comprehensive, science-backed approach to address air pollution effectively.

    Year-round, Multi-source Pollution

    • Misconception: Labelling air pollution as a ‘winter’ problem caused solely by farm residue burning oversimplifies the issue.
    • Complex Reality: Air pollution is a continuous problem arising from various sources, not confined to a particular season.
    • Ineffectiveness of City-Centric Strategies: Current initiatives like the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) focus on cities, ignoring the transboundary nature of pollution.

    Transboundary Air Pollution

    • Understanding Dispersion: Pollution emitted in one region can significantly impact air quality in another due to transboundary dispersion.
    • Inter-state Implications: Weather, topography, and climatic conditions influence transboundary dispersion, creating challenges for downwind regions.
    • Limited Jurisdictional Power: Downwind regions often lack the authority to regulate upwind pollution sources, rendering mitigation strategies ineffective.

    Need for Airshed Air Pollution Management

    • Defining Airsheds: An airshed is a geographic area governed by common meteorology, topography, and climate, impacting air mass dispersion.
    • Global Precedents: Countries like the United States, China, and the European Union have implemented effective regional airshed-level frameworks.

    Policy Levers in India

    • Existing Legal Framework: The Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital and Adjoining Areas (CAQM) Act, 2021 recognizes the transboundary nature of air pollution.
    • Expanding Scope: The Air Act, 1981, can be expanded to cover multiple jurisdictions and pollution sources under a single air quality management framework.
    • Global Experiences: Drawing lessons from frameworks like the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) in the US and the Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) in Europe can inform India’s approach.

    Implementation Challenges

    • Accountability: Holding upwind polluting regions accountable for transboundary pollution remains a challenge, necessitating legal mechanisms and cooperation.
    • Conflict Resolution: Implementing a formal procedure for resolving conflicts arising from the interpretation or application of airshed-level frameworks is crucial.
    • Political Will: Ensuring consistent implementation of air quality management measures despite bureaucratic cycles and political considerations is a persistent challenge.
    • Cross-Boundary Cooperation: Encouraging cooperation between jurisdictions and regions to collectively address air pollution requires coordinated efforts.
    • Data Integration: Integrating data from diverse sources and ensuring uniformity in air quality monitoring can be challenging.

    Way Forward

    • Legal Framework Expansion: Expanding the scope of the Air Act, 1981, to encompass multiple jurisdictions and pollution sources under a single air quality management framework.
    • Global Lessons: Drawing lessons from international frameworks like the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) and Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) to inform India’s approach.
    • Accountability Measures: Legally binding upwind polluters to address transboundary pollution through mitigation plans.
    • Scientific Independence: Separating scientific and technical activities from political negotiations to ensure data-driven decisions.
    • Conflict Resolution Mechanism: Implementing a mechanism for resolving disputes arising from framework interpretation or application.
    • Promoting Change: Integrating an airshed-level framework within existing legal structures or introducing a new framework to deliver cleaner air for citizens.

  • Delhi Odd-Even Scheme: Emergency Traffic Restrictions

    odd-even scheme

    Central Idea

    • The Odd-Even scheme, designed to reduce vehicular emissions and combat severe air pollution in Delhi, has garnered attention and scrutiny.
    • While this emergency action has been implemented in response to deteriorating air quality, experts emphasize that it may not be a panacea for all pollution woes.

    Odd-Even Scheme

    • Reduction in Vehicles: The scheme aims to curtail vehicular pollution by restricting the number of cars on the road. However, it has limitations, as it excludes two-wheelers and taxis, which are significant contributors to emissions.
    • Two Aspects of Transport Pollution: Transport pollution encompasses emissions from exhaust tailpipes and wear and tear of tires and brakes. Tailpipe emissions contain pollutants like PM2.5, soot, organics, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and poly-aromatic hydrocarbons.

    Why such move?

    • Curbing Local Sources of Pollution: Transport is a dominant source of pollutants when considering Delhi’s local emissions. Vehicles play a crucial role in exacerbating air quality issues.
    • Complex Challenges: Estimating the scheme’s exact impact on pollution levels is challenging due to multiple factors, including emissions from outside Delhi, restricted coverage of the transport fleet, and exemptions.

    Prior Experience and Expert Opinions

    • Experience from 2016: A study conducted on the Odd-Even scheme implemented in January 2016 indicated limited success in mitigating air pollution. PM2.5 levels decreased marginally in specific areas but not significantly citywide.
    • Comprehensive Approach Needed: Experts argue that while the Odd-Even scheme can contribute to pollution reduction, it should be viewed as one element of a comprehensive strategy, combined with measures like construction halts, during periods of stagnant air.
    • Not a Silver Bullet: Emergency actions, including the Odd-Even scheme, cannot independently solve air quality issues, and their effectiveness is influenced by various factors.

    Assessing Impact Based on Pollution Concentration

    • Air Quality Index (AQI) May Not Tell the Full Story: Experts emphasize the importance of considering pollutant concentration levels rather than relying solely on the Air Quality Index (AQI) for assessing the scheme’s impact.
    • Concentration Matters: Monitoring the concentration of pollutants provides a clearer picture of the scheme’s effectiveness in reducing harmful substances in the air.

    Transportation Role in Delhi’s Pollution

    • Contributor to Emissions: Transport, including vehicles and cars, is a substantial contributor to PM2.5 emissions in Delhi, accounting for a significant portion of the pollution.
    • Role of Four-Wheeler Cars: Four-wheeler cars contribute about 8% of emissions within the transport sector. Reducing their presence on the road can make a notable difference.

    Lessons from Other Cities

    • Global Precedents: Other major cities, such as Beijing and Paris, have implemented vehicle restrictions to address pollution issues.
    • Comprehensive Measures: The success of such schemes often depends on their comprehensive nature and alignment with specific local conditions.

    Conclusion

    • The Odd-Even scheme in Delhi serves as a critical emergency measure to combat air pollution during periods of severe deterioration.
    • While it can contribute to reducing vehicular emissions, experts emphasize that it should be part of a broader strategy that addresses multiple pollution sources.
    • Analyzing pollutant concentration levels provides a more accurate assessment of the scheme’s impact, and it is crucial to view it in conjunction with other measures to ensure sustained improvements in air quality.

  • Delhi AQI worsens to ‘Severe Plus’

    Central Idea

    • As Delhi-NCR and its environs grapple with worsening air pollution, the Air Quality Index (AQI) has gained prominence as a critical measure of air quality.

    Understanding Air Quality Index (AQI)

    • AQI measures how safe the air around you is for breathing. Organizations that report AQI measure the density of various pollutants in the air (such as PM2.5, PM10, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, etc) at different monitoring stations.
    • The widely-used National Air Quality Index (NAQI) given by the Central Pollution Control Board is a 24-hour average.
    • Its unit is micrograms per cubic meter.
    • A particular amount of one pollutant may not be as harmful as the same amount of another pollutant.
    • So, each pollutant’s quantity in the air is adjusted to a common scale (say, 0 to 500) that works for all pollutants.
    • Finally, the pollutant with the worst sub-index determines the AQI for that time and location.

    Air Pollutants covered:

    • Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
    • Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
    • Particulate Matter (size less than 10 µm) or PM 10
    • Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or PM2.5
    • Ozone (O3)
    • Carbon Monoxide (CO)
    • Ammonia (NH3)

    (Pollutants that most of us NEVER heard of-)

    • Lead
    • Benzene (C6H6)
    • Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP)
    • Arsenic(As)
    • Nickel (Ni)

    Influence on Government Policy

    • Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): AQI plays a pivotal role in shaping government policies to combat air pollution. When AQI levels in areas like Delhi-NCR deteriorate, emergency measures, such as Stage 3 of GRAP, are activated.
    • Immediate Action: For instance, the recent dip in AQI to the ‘severe’ category prompted immediate actions. Diesel four-wheelers not meeting BS-VI compliance were prohibited, and truck entry into Delhi was restricted. Petrol cars continued to operate under regular conditions.

    About Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

    • The GRAP was conceived as a response to the alarming findings of a WHO study in 2014, which ranked Delhi as the most polluted city globally.
    • In 2016, the Supreme Court (M. C. Mehta vs. Union of India Case) approved GRAP after multiple expert consultations.
    • First GRAP was notified in January 2017 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

    Implementation

    • Starting in 2021, the Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR & Adjoining Areas (CAQM) has taken over the responsibility of implementing GRAP.
    • Prior to 2021, the Supreme Court-appointed EPCA would instruct states to enforce GRAP measures.
    • In 2020, the EPCA was disbanded and substituted with the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM).
    • The CAQM recommendations depend on the Air Quality Index (AQI) and meteorological predictions provided by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD).

    Revised measure implemented

    Air Quality Stage Range Measures to be implemented
    Stage I (Poor) 201-300 Enforce NGT/Supreme Court’s order on over-aged diesel/petrol vehicles.
    Stage II (Very Poor) 301-400 Implement rigorous actions to combat air pollution at identified hotspots.
    Stage III (Severe) 401-450 Impose strict restrictions on BS III petrol and BS IV diesel vehicles. Suspend physical classes in schools for primary grade children up to Class 5 in certain areas.
    Stage IV (Severe Plus) >450 Prohibit the entry of four-wheelers registered outside Delhi, except for electric vehicles, CNG vehicles, and BS-VI diesel vehicles.

     

  • Biosphere reserves are evolving as pockets of hope

    Central idea 

    World Biosphere Reserve Day on November 3 emphasizes the global importance of UNESCO-designated reserves in conserving biodiversity and mitigating climate change. With 748 reserves in 134 countries, challenges like deforestation persist, necessitating local collaboration, sustainable tourism, and international cooperation for effective conservation.

    Key Highlights:

    • World Biosphere Reserve Day: Annual celebration on November 3 to raise awareness and promote the conservation of biosphere reserves.
    • UNESCO Designation: Biosphere reserves designated by UNESCO for biodiversity conservation, sustainable development, and research.
    • Global Impact: 748 biosphere reserves in 134 countries, influencing the lives of over 250 million people.
    • Transboundary Collaboration: 22 transboundary sites fostering cooperation between neighboring countries.

    Key Organizations:

    • UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): Initiator and supporter of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programm Designates and recognizes biosphere reserves globally, promoting conservation and sustainable development.
    • United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): Collaborates with biosphere reserves to support sustainable development initiatives.
    • United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Engages in activities to enhance environmental sustainability within biosphere reserves.
    • International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Supports UNESCO in biodiversity conservation efforts and sustainable development.
      Prelims focus

      UNESCO MAB Award:

        • The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust received the UNESCO Michel Batisse Award for Biosphere Reserve Management in 2023, recognizing exemplary efforts in conservation.

      Origin of Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme:

       

      Inception: Established by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) in 1971.

      Inspiration: Evolved from the recommendations of the International Biological Programme (IBP), recognizing the need for a comprehensive approach to address the human-environment relationship.

      MAB’s Foundation: Launched during the 16th session of the UNESCO General Conference in 1971, with the primary goal of integrating natural and social sciences for sustainable development and biodiversity conservation.

      Key Drivers: Emerged as a response to growing concerns about the impact of human activities on the environment and the need for a coordinated effort to balance conservation and development.

       

       

    Challenges and Concerns:

    • Anthropogenic Pressures: Human-induced pressures on biosphere reserves, such as pollution, habitat destruction, and overexploitation, pose significant threats to biodiversity.
    • Climate Change Impact: The increasing impacts of climate change, including rising temperatures and extreme weather events, challenge the resilience of biosphere reserves and their ability to support diverse ecosystems.
    • Lack of Funding: Many biosphere reserves face financial constraints, hindering effective conservation efforts and the implementation of sustainable development projects. Adequate funding is crucial for long-term success.
    • Deforestation, invasive species, and land use changes like mining pose significant challenges.
    • Urbanization and population growth contribute to increased exploitation.

    Analysis:

    • Role as Carbon Sinks: Biosphere reserves play a crucial role as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide and contributing to climate change mitigation.
    • Economic and Biodiversity Significance: Provide a foundation for sustainable economic development and protect diverse biodiversity.

    Key facts:

    • World Biosphere Reserve Day: Celebrated on November 3 annually to raise awareness about biosphere reserves.
    • Biosphere Reserves Globally: Currently, 748 biosphere reserves across 134 countries.
    • Transboundary Sites: 22 transboundary biosphere reserve sites, fostering cooperation between neighboring countries.
    • Global Impact: Biosphere reserves impact the lives of over 250 million people in 134 countries.
    • Local Initiatives: Examples include the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve in India, where local communities manage mangrove forests, and the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, introducing ‘plastic checkpoints’ for waste management.

    Key Terms:

    • Biosphere Reserves: Designated by UNESCO for conservation, sustainable development, and research.
    • Carbon Sinks: Areas like forests and the ocean that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
    • World Biosphere Reserve Day: Annual celebration on November 3 to raise awareness about biosphere reserves.

    Way Forward:

    • Local Collaboration for Conservation: Emphasize the importance of local collaboration for effective conservation efforts. Encourage the active involvement of local communities in biodiversity protection and sustainable practices.
    • Addressing Specific Threats: Develop targeted strategies to address diverse threats such as deforestation, invasive species, and land use changes. Implement policies and practices that mitigate the impact of urbanization and population growth on biosphere reserves.
    • Promoting Sustainable Tourism: Encourage sustainable tourism practices within biosphere reserves to minimize negative environmental impacts. Educate tourists and local communities about responsible tourism to ensure the long-term well-being of these ecosystems.
    • International Cooperation: Strengthen international cooperation for the conservation of transboundary biosphere reserves. Facilitate knowledge exchange and collaborative initiatives to address global environmental challenges.

    This World Biosphere Reserve Day serves as a crucial moment to reflect on the significance of these natural treasures and the collective responsibility to ensure their preservation for future generations.

  • In news: Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS)

    Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary

    Central Idea

    • The Goa bench of the Bombay High Court issued directives to the Goa government, compelling the establishment of a tiger reserve within Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS).
    • The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) had identified Goa’s Cotigao-Mhadei forest complex, which encompasses several protected areas, as an ideal habitat for tigers.

    About Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary

    Location Western Ghats, spanning Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
    Establishment Designated as a wildlife sanctuary in 1999.
    Area Approximately 208.5 square kilometers.
    Ecological Significance Located within the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Sahyadri mountain range. Comprises various forest types and grasslands, supporting diverse flora and fauna.
    Flora Rich in plant species, including medicinal plants and endemic flora.
    Fauna Home to Tigers, Indian gaur, sambar deer, leopards, barking deer, wild boars, reptiles, amphibians, and birds.
    Conservation Importance Crucial for conserving endangered species and maintaining biodiversity in the Western Ghats. Promotes genetic diversity through wildlife corridors.
    Legal Dispute Ongoing disagreement between Goa and Karnataka regarding Mhadei/Mahadayi (Mandowi) River water diversion, with concerns about its impact on the sanctuary’s ecology.

  • Indians are choking on pollution. How can it be stopped?

    Central idea

    Severe health consequences of air pollution cannot be mitigated by personal protection measures alone. Clean, public transport and rapid transition away from fossil fuels are needed.

    Key Highlights:

    • Air pollution in India, particularly in cities like Delhi, is significantly reducing life expectancy.
    • A recent report estimates an average loss of 5.3 years of life expectancy in India due to air pollution.
    • Delhi, one of the most polluted cities globally, faces an even worse scenario with an estimated life loss of 11.9 years.

    Challenges:

    • 39 out of 50 of the world’s most polluted cities are in India, impacting both urban and rural areas.
    • Pollutants monitored include PM 10, PM 2.5, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, ammonia, lead, benzene, formaldehyde, and cadmium.
    • India’s air quality standards are less stringent than WHO standards, with concerns about health risks even at lower pollution levels.

    Concerns:

    • Prolonged exposure to air pollution, even at satisfactory Air Quality Index (AQI) levels, can have adverse health effects.
    • Geographical factors, like the landlocked Indo-Gangetic plain, exacerbate pollution levels, especially during winters.
    • Both outdoor and indoor sources contribute to air pollution, impacting various regions differently.

    Analysis:

    • Health harms range from acute effects like respiratory issues to severe conditions such as heart attacks and strokes.
    • Long-term exposure to air pollution is linked to hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes, dementia, cataracts, and more.
    • Pregnant women and children are particularly vulnerable, facing risks of stillbirths, neonatal deaths, low birth weight, and developmental issues.

    Key Data:

    • The WHO’s PM 2.5 limit is 5 microns, while India allows 40 microns.
    • Delhi’s current AQI of 126 exceeds national and WHO standards.
    • 22 states meet national AQI standards, but none meet WHO standards.

    Key Terms:

    • Particulate matter (PM 2.5) and ultra-fine particles.
    • AQI categories: Good, satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor, and severe.
    • Emission sources: line, point, area, and natural sources.
    • Personal protection measures, including air purifiers, masks, and breathing exercises.

    Way Forward:

    • Urgent measures needed for clean transport, increased public transport usage, renewable energy adoption, and waste disposal improvements.
    • Addressing household air pollution through alternative fuel use and better ventilation.
    • Proactive public policy, enforcement, monitoring, and innovations required to combat air pollution and its health impacts.

  • Cloud Seeding

    cloud seeding

    Central Idea

    • Solapur, a city with limited rainfall due to its location on the leeward side of the Western Ghats, witnessed an 18% relative enhancement in rainfall through a cloud seeding experiment.

    What is Cloud Seeding?

    Explanation
    Definition Weather modification technique to enhance precipitation.
    Objective Increase rainfall or snowfall in areas facing water scarcity or drought.
    Seeding Agents Silver iodide, calcium chloride, potassium iodide, sodium chloride, etc.
    Suitable Clouds Typically convective clouds with moisture and vertical motion.
    Methods of Dispersion Aircraft, rockets, ground-based generators, drones.
    Environmental Impact Generally considered safe with minimal environmental impact.
    Effectiveness Variable; depends on weather conditions and cloud characteristics.

    About CAIPEEX Experiment

    • The initiative, known as the Cloud Aerosol Interaction and Precipitation Enhancement Experiment (CAIPEEX phase-4), sought to investigate the effectiveness of hygroscopic seeding in deep convective clouds.
    • Over two hours after cloud seeding, an additional 8.67mm of rainfall was recorded, resulting in 867 million litres of augmented water availability.

    Importance of the Experiment

    • Growing NCD Burden: As India grapples with a rising burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), exacerbated by the consumption of pre-packaged foods, informed consumer choices and food safety become paramount.
    • Cloud Seeding Efficacy: The experiment underscores cloud seeding as an effective strategy for enhancing rainfall, particularly in regions with suitable conditions.
    • Cost-Benefit Analysis: The research evaluates the cost-effectiveness of cloud seeding, estimating the cost of producing water through cloud seeding at 18 paise per litre.

    Key Findings and Methodology

    • Randomized Seeding Experiment: The study selected 276 convective clouds, with 150 subjected to seeding and 122 serving as the control group.
    • Criteria for Seeding: Clouds with characteristics such as significant liquid water content, vertical motion indicative of cloud growth, and depth exceeding one kilometre were targeted.
    • Seeding Agent: Calcium chloride flares were employed for cloud seeding, ensuring optimal dispersion and entry into growing clouds.
    • Rainfall Enhancement: Seeded clouds produced more rainfall than unseeded ones, resulting in an 18% relative enhancement.

    Implications and Future Prospects

    • Water Management: While cloud seeding alone cannot alleviate droughts, it can contribute to an 18% increase in rainfall and partially address water requirements.
    • Cost Reduction: Utilizing indigenous seeding aircraft could reduce costs by over 50%, making cloud seeding more accessible.
    • High-Resolution Numerical Model: The study has developed a numerical model to help stakeholders identify target locations, suitable clouds for seeding, and effective strategies for enhancing rainfall.