💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Subject: Environment

  • [7 May 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: A half-hearted climate change verdict

    Mains PYQ Relevance: 
    Q) ‘Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC IAS/2022)
    Q) Does the right to a clean environment entail legal regulation on burning crackers during Diwali? Discuss in the light of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution and judgments of the apex in this regard. (UPSC IAS/2015)
    Q) Starting from inventing the ‘basic structure’ doctrine, the judiciary has played a highly proactive role in ensuring that India develops into a thriving democracy. In light of the statement, evaluate the role played by judicial activism in achieving the ideals of democracy. (UPSC IAS/2014)

    Prelims:
    Which of the following are regarded as the main features of the “Rule of Law”?  (UPSC IAS/2018)
    1) Limitation of powers
    2) Equality before law
    3) People’s responsibility to the Government
    4) Liberty and civil rights
    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
    (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims:  Rights to Life (Article 21) and Equality (Article 14); Right to be free of ill effects;

    Mains: Judiciary on Environment and Climate Change;

    Mentor comments: “Vidya dadati Vinayam” is an ancient Sanskrit phrase meaning knowledge leads to happiness. India is an important piece of the global climate puzzle. It houses close to twenty percent of the world’s population, 2.4% of the world’s land area, and 7%–8% of all recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals. A significant responsibility of the fate of India rests on how the Indian Judiciary deals with the increasing climate change-related cases. Now, recently the SC in M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. vs. Union of India & Ors. case ruled that the people have a right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change which should be recognised by Article 14 and Article 21 of the Constitution. This judgement comes with its own set of challenges that we need to consider.

    Let’s learn

    —

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court of India’s extension of Constitutional Rights to Life and Equality to include protection from Climate Change offers hope after the ecological crisis.

    Previous 2021 judgment:

    The SC had directed the installation of bird diverters on existing overhead power lines and the undergrounding of power lines in the GIB’s priority habitat areas.

    The 2024 order:  The SC acknowledged the practical challenges raised by the government and renewable energy companies in implementing the blanket ban on overhead power lines.
    The SC lifted the ban on overhead power lines for 77,000 sq km but upheld it for a 13,000 sq km core habitat area of the GIB.

    Formation of Expert Committee: The SC constituted a 7-member expert committee which is tasked with suggesting conservation measures for endangered GIB by identifying areas where power lines can be constructed and exploring the alternatives for their protection.

    The committee has to submit its report to the SC by July 31, 2024, after which the court will take a final decision on the way forward.

    Limitations with present order: 

    To meet India’s climate commitments declared at COP 26 (2021), it includes net zero carbon emissions by 2070, generation of 500 GW by non-fossil fuel sources and a 50% share of total power generation to renewable energy by 2030. However, it comes with certain challenges as follows:

    • Inclusion of Problematic Energy Sources: The judgment includes large hydropower and nuclear plants in ‘non-fossil-fuel‘ and ‘renewable’ energy, which have significant negative impacts, the Mega-dams in the Himalayas can cause destabilization, biodiversity loss, and community displacement.
    • Adverse Impacts of Mega-Renewable Projects: The Court has tried to balance the need for land (and airspace) for solar and wind energy production in Rajasthan and Gujarat, with the imperative of protecting the Great Indian Bustard.
      • Large solar and wind projects have significant negative impacts, Pavagada Solar Park (Karnataka) took away grazing and agricultural land and destroyed wildlife.
    • Lack of Environmental Assessment and Clearance: Renewable energy projects are excluded from Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and clearance procedures, so their impacts are not assessed.
    • Continued Investment in Coal: Despite significant investment in renewable energy, the government is not reducing investments in coal. The new coal mining blocks continue to be given a green signal, including in biologically diverse and socially sensitive areas.

    Alternatives should have been considered:

    • Decentralized Renewable Energy Sources: The Rooftop and Decentralized Renewable Energy sources could yield over 600 GW, offering a more sustainable alternative to mega-projects. They have already benefited millions in Indian villages, aligning with provisions for Equality and a Clean Environment.
    • Efficient Energy Use and Demand Management: Questions should be raised about energy wastage in transmission, inefficient appliance use, and luxury consumption. Demand management and power redistribution could address energy needs more effectively, reducing the necessity for new power production.
    • Rights of Nature and Earth Jurisprudence: The Court could have considered the growing global movement recognizing the ‘Rights of Nature’, crucial for just climate action. Recognition of the rights of rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna could serve as a model to safeguard nature and habitats against climate-damaging actions.
    • Incorporating Expert Committee Mandate: The Court could enhance the judgment’s impact by tasking the expert committee to explore alternative, less damaging ways of meeting energy demands, including decentralized renewables and reducing waste/luxury consumption.
    Flaws in the Indian Development Model

    India’s development model heavily relies on mega-industrial, infrastructural, and extractive projects that cause deforestation and displacement of communities, violating constitutional rights.

    The government’s proposal to deforest 130 sq. km of rainforest and take up tribal lands in Great Nicobar violates the Court’s observation of protecting indigenous communities’ traditional lives and cultures.

    Way Forward – Need for Transformative Change Organically:

    • If the Court had taken its observations to their logical conclusion, it could have directed the government to re-examine such destructive projects. This could have provided grounds for a fundamental shift towards real sustainability and justice in tackling climate change.
    • However, the judgment has reinforced the ecologically flawed, undemocratic, and socially disruptive path promoted by the Government of India.

  • What is Carbon Farming? | Explained

    Why in the News? 

    The goal of carbon farming is to mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

    BACK2BASICS:

    What is meant by Carbon Farming? 

    • Carbon farming is a holistic approach to agriculture that focuses on sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into the soil and vegetation, thereby mitigating climate change while simultaneously enhancing soil health and agricultural productivity.
    • It involves implementing regenerative agricultural practices that promote carbon sequestration, such as agroforestry, cover cropping, rotational grazing, conservation tillage, composting, and diverse crop rotations.

    Significance of Carbon Farming:

    • Mitigation of Climate Change: Carbon farming practices such as rotational grazing, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and integrated nutrient management help sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide into the soil and vegetation, thereby mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon storage.
    • Soil Health Improvement: Carbon farming enhances soil health by increasing soil organic carbon levels, improving soil structure, fertility, water retention, and resilience to drought and extreme weather events. Practices like zero tillage, cover cropping, and crop residue management minimize soil disturbance and enhance organic content.
    • Biodiversity Conservation: Agroforestry, agroecology, and land restoration practices promote biodiversity conservation by diversifying plant and animal species, providing habitat for wildlife, and restoring degraded ecosystems.
    • Sustainable Agriculture: Carbon farming promotes sustainable agricultural practices by minimizing environmental impacts, conserving natural resources, and enhancing the long-term productivity and resilience of agricultural systems.

    Challenges in Carbon farming:

    • Water Availability: Carbon farming can be challenging in hot and dry areas. Limited water availability can hinder plant growth and restrict the potential for carbon sequestration through photosynthesis, affecting practices like cover cropping.
    • Plant Selection: The selection of plant species is crucial, as not all species trap and store carbon in the same amounts or equally effectively. Fast-growing trees and deep-rooted perennial grasses are generally better at carbon sequestration, but may not be suitable for arid environments.
    • Financial Resources: Small-scale farmers in developing countries may particularly lack the resources to invest in sustainable land management practices and environmental services.
    • Policy Support: Sufficient policy support is essential for the widespread adoption of carbon farming practices. This includes incentives, subsidies, regulations, and technical assistance to encourage and facilitate the implementation of carbon farming at the local, national, and international levels.

    What are some carbon farming schemes worldwide?

    • Voluntary Carbon Markets: Carbon trading in the agriculture sector has gained importance globally, especially in countries like the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Voluntary carbon markets, such as the Chicago Climate Exchange, provide platforms for incentivizing carbon mitigation activities in agriculture.
    • Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project: Supported by the World Bank, Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project exemplifies efforts to address climate mitigation, adaptation, and food security challenges in economically developing countries through carbon farming initiatives.
    • ‘4 per 1000’ Initiative: Launched during the COP21 climate talks in 2015 in Paris, the ‘4 per 1000’ initiative emphasizes the role of carbon sinks, including those created through carbon farming practices, in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. It underscores the importance of managing the remaining global carbon budget wisely.

    The Silver Line for the Indian Government:

    • Viability of Organic Farming: Grassroots initiatives and agrarian research in India demonstrate the viability of organic farming to sequester carbon. Agroecological practices have the potential to generate significant economic benefits, estimated at $63 billion in value from approximately 170 million hectares of arable land.
    • Economic Benefits for Farmers: Adoption of sustainable agricultural practices could lead to economic benefits for farmers, including an estimated annual payment of around ₹5,000-6,000 per acre for providing climate services through carbon farming.
    • Suitability of Agricultural Regions: Regions with extensive agricultural land, such as the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Deccan Plateau, are well-suited to adopt carbon farming practices. These regions have the potential to contribute significantly to carbon sequestration and climate mitigation efforts.

    Way forward: 

    • Research and Development: Invest in research and development to identify and promote plant species that are well-suited for carbon sequestration. Develop drought-resistant crops and agroforestry species to enhance carbon farming viability.
    • Financial Support: Provide Financial assistance and incentives to small-scale farmers in developing countries to invest in sustainable land management practices and adopt carbon farming techniques.
    • Policy Framework: Develop and implement supportive policy frameworks at local, national, and international levels to encourage the adoption of carbon farming practices. For example  setting carbon pricing mechanisms, establishing regulatory standards, and providing technical assistance to farmers.

     

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Should the pursuit of carbon credits and clean development mechanisms set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of a carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.(UPSC IAS/2014)

     

  • Uttarakhand Forest Fires

    Why in the News?

    Last week, three instances of forest fire were reported from the major forest belts in Uttarakhand.

    • The severity of the situation has prompted the deployment of Indian Air Force personnel and Mi-17 choppers, engaged in the critical operation of dousing the flames using the Bambi Bucket Method.

    Causes of Wildfire:

    • Firstly, the general major causes of forest fires in Uttarakhand are continued dry weather and lack of moisture in the forests.
    • Secondly, according to the Forest Research Institute (FRI, 2019), 95% of forest fires are attributed to human activities.
    • The common human-induced causes include – Grazers setting fire to dry grass, Slash-and-burn agriculture, Unattended campfires, and Intentional arson.

    Uttarakhand’s Forest Vulnerability:

    • As per the latest report from the Forest Survey of India (FSI), the Recorded Forest Area (RFA) in the State is 38,000 sq km of which 26,547 sq km is Reserved Forest, 9,885 sq km is Protected Forest, and 1,568 sq km is Unclassed Forests.
    • Highly flammable Chir Pine trees, covering extensive areas, increase the fire risk.
    • This risk is compounded by prolonged dry spells and excess biomass accumulation.
    • Additionally, the proximity of villages facilitates anthropogenic activities such as forest clearance and grazing.

    Forest Fires in India: Recent Statistics

    • Odisha recorded 4,237 forest fires as compared to 1,499 between April 20 and 27 in 2023. Similarly, Chhattisgarh recorded 757 fires last year as compared to 2,116 this year, Jharkhand 633 as against 1,926 and Andhra Pradesh 527 as compared to 1,126 in 2023.
    • However, Uttarakhand has recorded the highest number of large forest fires in the country in the last seven days since April 28, according to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) data.

     

    Mitigation Strategies

    1. Localized Initiatives: 
    • Effective measures to mitigate forest fire risks include controlled burning, biomass removal, prescribed burns, and enhanced surveillance using drones.
    • Community engagement and proactive involvement, as demonstrated in Kerala, provide valuable insights for forest fire management.
    1. Government Initiatives:
    • The government has introduced measures such as a satellite-based fire alert system by the Forest Survey of India, aiding in early detection and response efforts.
    • Forest staff utilize various techniques, including counter-fires and fire beaters, to contain and manage forest fires effectively.

    Wildfires Mitigating Strategies:

    • The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) outlines four strategies to prevent and manage forest fires:
    1. Erecting watch towers for early detection,
    2. Deploying fire watchers,
    3. Engaging local communities, and
    4. Establishing and maintaining fire lines.

    The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) website distinguishes between two types of fire lines:

    1. Kachha fire lines involve clearing undergrowth and shrubs while preserving trees to decrease the amount of available fuel.
    2. Pucca fire lines are clear-cut areas that create a barrier between forest compartments or blocks to contain potential fire spread.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change.

  • Scintillating Sea Creatures and their Uniqueness

     

    Why in the News?

    “Scintillating” means sparkling or shining brightly, often used metaphorically to describe something lively, exciting, or brilliantly clever.

    Species Description Notable Features IUCN Status
    Seahorses

    		 Small, dragon-like creatures inhabiting tropical seas.
    • Vibrant colors and intricate camouflage
    • Unique parenting style with male nurturing eggs
    		 Status: Near Threatened
    Mantis Shrimp

     

    		 Colorful crustaceans found in tropical waters, known for hunting prowess.
    • Impressive stabbing or punching abilities
    • Display familial bonds
    		 Status: Least Concerned
    Octopus

    		 Highly intelligent marine creatures with a wise demeanor.
    • They have three functioning hearts.
    • Venomous beaks and powerful suckers.
    • Solitary nature, adept at camouflage
    		 Status: Least Concerned

    Recently, marine scientists have discovered a new Octopus nursery off the coast of Costa Rica.
    Starfish

    		 Also known as sea stars, possess remarkable regenerative abilities.

    Starfish have two stomachs – the pyloric and the cardiac stomach.
    • Each arm contains vital organs.
    • Starfish belongs to the phylum Echinodermata group. Echinodermata are so named owing to their spiny skin
    • They have a unique feeding method involving stomach extrusion.
    		 Status: The Sunflower sea star (Pycnopodia helianthoides) is Critically Endangered.
    Hermit Crabs

    		 Resourceful creatures use discarded shells for shelter.
    • They use empty snail shells or other hollow objects as a shelter for partial containment and protection of the body.
    • Hermit crabs occur in sandy- or muddy-bottomed marine waters and occasionally on land and in trees.
    • Status: Least Concerned
    • The majority of terrestrial hermit crab species worldwide have used trash as shells, according to a recent study by experts.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following animals

    1. Sea cow
    2. Sea horse
    3. Sea lion

    Which of the above is/are mammal/mammals?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Shellfish Aquaculture for Water Remediation

    Why in the news?

    Shellfish aquaculture using Geukensia demissa is emerging as a viable solution for mitigating excess nutrients and contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters.

    About Geukensia demissa

    • Geukensia demissa is a species of mussel commonly known as the ribbed mussel or Atlantic ribbed mussel. 
    • It is native to the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from Nova Scotia in Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.
    • They inhabit intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, typically found in estuaries, salt marshes, and tidal flats.
    • They prefer areas with muddy or sandy substrates where they can burrow and anchor themselves.

    Ecological Importance

    Ribbed mussels play a vital role in estuarine ecosystems.

    • Water Filtration: They filter large volumes of water, helping to improve water quality by removing suspended particles and excess nutrients.
    • Key species of Food Chain: Additionally, their presence provides habitat and food for various other organisms, including small invertebrates and fish.
    • Organisms Filter: These mussels thrive in diverse habitats and possess the ability to filter bacteria, microalgae, and detritus laden with nutrients and contaminants.

    Geukensia demissa: Experimental Deployment and Results

    • To assess the efficacy of G. demissa in purifying urban waters, a raft stocked with local ribbed mussels was deployed in an estuary near New York City.
    • Subsequent analysis revealed that the mussels exhibited robust health and accumulated significant amounts of local nitrogen isotopes, indicative of nitrogen removal from the water.
    • Based on the findings, it is estimated that a fully stocked raft could purify an average of 11,356 m3 of water daily and remove approximately 159 kg of particulate matter on a daily basis.
    • Moreover, upon harvesting, the mussels sequestered 62.6 kg of nitrogen in their tissues and shells, further enhancing the water quality.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] Recently, “oil-zapper” was in the news. What is it?

    (a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation of oily sludge and oil spills

    (b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration

    (c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel-yielding maize variety

    (d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused flames from oil wells

  • Eta Aquariid Meteor Shower and how it can be spotted

    Why in the news?

    • The Eta Aquariid meteor shower, an annual event, will reach its peak on May 5 and 6.
    • This meteor shower is a result of Earth intersecting with the debris trail left by Halley’s Comet during its orbit.

    Halley’s Comet

    • Halley’s Comet is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–79 years.
    • It was last seen in Earth’s skies in 1986 and was met in space by an international fleet of spacecraft. It will return in 2061 on its regular journey around the Sun.

    What are Meteoric Showers?

    • Meteors, fragments of dust, rock and ice, are expelled from comets during their celestial orbits around the sun.
    • The Earth’s atmosphere heats these space rocks as they descend, leaving luminous streaks of gas in their way.
    • NASA’s records confirms existence of over 30 meteor showers annually.

    Origin of Meteor Showers:

    • Meteor showers originate from comets, remnants of the solar system’s formation composed of dust, rock, and ice.
    • Comets orbit the Sun in highly elliptical paths, and as they approach, they heat up, releasing gases and dust to form a glowing head and a tail stretching millions of miles.
    • When Earth traverses through the debris left behind by comets along their orbital plane, we witness meteor showers.

    About Eta Aquariids

    • Known for their rapid speed, Eta Aquariid meteors produce long, glowing tails lasting several minutes.
    • Observers in the Southern Hemisphere can witness approximately 30 to 40 meteors per hour during the peak, while those in the Northern Hemisphere may see around 10 meteors per hour.
    • They seem to originate from the Aquarius constellation, hence the name ‘Eta Aquariid.’

    PYQ:

    [2014] What is a coma, in the content of astronomy?

    (a) Bright half of material on the comet

    (b) Long tail of dust

    (c) Two asteroids orbiting each other

    (d) Two planets orbiting each other

  • Mapping: Garo Hills

    Why in the news?

    • Geological Survey of India (GSI) explorers have made a breakthrough, uncovering ancient fossils in Tolegre, South Garo Hills of Meghalaya.
    • It is speculated that the fossils could be linked to the genera Rhodocetus or Amulocetus (now extinct), considered ancestors of modern whales.

    About Garo Hills

    • The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya, are part of the Garo-Khasi range, one of the hill ranges in the northeastern region of India.
    • They are situated in the western part of Meghalaya, bordering Bangladesh to the south and west.
    • The terrain of the Garo Hills is rugged and hilly, characterized by dense forests, steep slopes, and deep valleys.
    • The Nokrek is highest Peak, which stands at approximately 1,415 meters (4,642 feet) above sea level.
    • The climate in the Garo Hills is typically humid subtropical, with heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, which usually lasts from June to September.
    • Numerous rivers and streams, including the Brahmaputra, Someshwari, and Jinjiram rivers crisscross this region.
    • The region is also known for its picturesque waterfalls, such as the Pelga Falls, located near Tura, the largest town in the Garo Hills.
    • The Nokrek National Park, located within, is recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and is home to various endangered species, including the Asian elephant and the red panda.
    • The Garo Hills are inhabited predominantly by the Garo tribe, one of the major ethnic groups in Meghalaya.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following pairs:

    1. Nokrek Bio-Sphere Reserve : Garo Hills

    2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range

    3. Namdapha National Park: Daphla Hills

    Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1, 2 and 3

    (d) None

  • Mapping: Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago

    Why in the news?

    Researchers disclosed that one of Norway’s Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago witnessed its first walrus death due to Bird Flu (H5N1).

    About Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago

    • Hopen Island is situated in the southern part of the Svalbard Archipelago, between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.
    • The island covers an area of about 47 square km, making it one of the smaller islands in the Svalbard group.
    • The landscape mainly consists of low-lying tundra, rocky outcrops, and coastal cliffs.
    • Like the rest of Svalbard, Hopen Island experiences a harsh Arctic climate. Winters are long, dark, and extremely cold, while summers are short and cool.
    • It serves as an important breeding ground for seabirds such as guillemots, puffins, and kittiwakes. Polar bears are also occasionally spotted on the island, along with walruses, seals, and Arctic foxes.
    • It is uninhabited and largely inaccessible to humans due to its remote location and extreme weather conditions.
    • Historically, Hopen Island has been of strategic importance due to its location between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.

    H5N1 Bird Flu: Details

    • H5N1 originated from a virus outbreak on a goose farm in China in 1996 and has since evolved into a highly pathogenic strain.
    • The virus quickly spread from Europe to Africa, Asia, North America, and South America, and most recently, it reached mainland Antarctica.
    • H5N1 is a subtype of the influenza A virus that causes severe respiratory disease in birds, known as avian influenza or “bird flu”.
    • Influenza A viruses are classified by subtypes based on the properties of their surface proteins, with H5N1 being one subtype.

    How widespread is it?

    • The virus has affected birds in over 80 countries, resulting in mass culling of poultry and wild birds.
    • Furthermore, it has now begun infecting mammals, including seals, sea lions, and marine mammals.
    • While humans rarely contract bird flu, those at risk are typically individuals who have extensive contact with infected birds at poultry farms.
    • Bird flu first broke out in Maharashtra in 2006.
    • The H5N1 virus led to the culling of millions of poultry so as to contain the virus. But it has resurfaced from time to time.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’?

    (a) Andaman and Nicobar

    (b) Nicobar and Sumatra

    (c) Maldives and Lakshadweep

    (d) Sumatra and Java

  • [PREMIUM] To the South Pole – Antarctica

    Why in the news?

    The Antarctic Treaty has sparked debates among policymakers, scientists, and the public, as they weigh the balance between environmental conservation, economic interests, and geopolitical concerns in Antarctica.

    About Antarctica

      • Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, covering an area of approximately 14 million square km.
      • It is situated entirely within the Antarctic Circle, with its geographic center near the South Pole.
      • It is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth.
      • The interior of Antarctica is a polar desert, receiving very little precipitation, mostly in the form of snow.
    • The Antarctic Ice Sheet is the largest single mass of ice on Earth, containing approximately 70% of the world’s freshwater.

    Geographical Features:

    Description
    Mountains
    • The continent is home to several mountain ranges, including the Transantarctic Mountains.
    • Vinson Massif is the highest peak at 4,892 meters (16,050 feet) above sea level.
    Ice Shelves Large floating ice shelves extend along the coast, formed by glaciers flowing from the interior, crucial for stabilizing the Antarctic ice sheet.
    Glaciers Numerous glaciers flow from the high interior to the coast, including Pine Island Glacier and Thwaites Glacier, among the largest and fastest-moving in the world.
    Icebergs
    • Glaciers calve off large chunks of ice, forming icebergs of various sizes.
    • Antarctic Iceberg A-68, which broke off from the Larsen C Ice Shelf in 2017, was one of the largest recorded.
    Plateaus Much of Antarctica’s interior consists of high, flat plateaus covered by ice, reaching elevations over 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) above sea level.
    Ice-Free Areas Despite being predominantly ice-covered, some ice-free areas exist along the coastlines and in the Antarctic Peninsula region, supporting limited vegetation and wildlife.

    Territorial Claims on Antarctica:

    The countries with territorial claims in Antarctica are:

    1. Argentina: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Argentine Antarctica.
    2. Australia: Claims the Australian Antarctic Territory.
    3. Chile: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Chilean Antarctic Territory.
    4. France: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Adélie Land.
    5. New Zealand: Claims the Ross Dependency.
    6. Norway: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land.
    7. United Kingdom: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as the British Antarctic Territory.
    8. United States: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as the Marie Byrd Land.

    India’s Antarctic Outreach

    • Initiated in 1981, India’s Antarctic Program, managed by National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, encompasses multi-disciplinary research expeditions.
    • With the establishment of research bases like Dakshin Gangotri (1983) (now decommissioned), Maitri (1989), and Bharati (2012), India contributes significantly to Antarctic exploration.
    • Notably, India’s presence in Antarctica includes a Post Office established in 1984, facilitating communication and research logistics.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has been a cause of concern. What could be the reason for the formation of this hole?

    (a) Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons

    (b) Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric’: Clouds; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons

    (c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds; and inflow of methane and chlorofluorocarbons

    (d) Increased temperature at polar region due to global warming.

  • An Animal Protection Bill that must be moved in June

    Why in the News? 

    Presently, Croatia has imposed stricter penalties for acts of cruelty, especially the abandonment of domestic pets. Countries across the world are reforming their animal cruelty laws and enhancing punishments for animal cruelty.

    On punishment theories:

    • Inadequacies in the PCA Act (1960): The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (PCA Act) is the primary legislation criminalizing various forms of cruelty towards animals in India.
    • Failure to Achieve Objectives: Despite being in place for several decades, the PCA Act has failed to achieve its main objective of preventing cruelty to animals effectively.

    Theories of punishment suggest that punishment serves three main goals:

    • Retribution: Retribution refers to punishment imposed to avenge the crime committed.In the context of animal cruelty, retribution could involve imposing punishment on perpetrators to seek justice for the harm inflicted on animals.
    • Deterrence: It aims to prevent future crimes by imposing punishment that dissuades both the perpetrator and the general public from engaging in similar behavior.
    • Reformation or Rehabilitation: It focuses on reforming the behavior of the perpetrator to prevent future offenses.

    Issues in PCA 1960 : 

    • Bail and Non-Cognisable Offences: Many offences under the PCA Act are bailable and non-cognisable, allowing accused individuals to seek bail easily and preventing immediate police action without court permission. This delays justice and hampers effective enforcement.
    • Inadequate Fines: The fines prescribed under the PCA Act have remained unchanged for over 130 years, rendering them insignificant and failing to act as a deterrent against animal cruelty. In many cases, fines are as low as ₹10, which does not reflect the seriousness of the offenses.
    • Discretionary Sentencing: The law grants courts discretion to choose between imposing imprisonment or a fine on offenders, even for severe cases of animal cruelty. This leniency allows perpetrators to evade appropriate punishment, undermining the deterrent effect of the law.
    • Lack of Rehabilitation Measures: The PCA Act lacks provisions for alternative forms of punishment such as community service, which could help reform perpetrators and address the root causes of animal cruelty.

    Steps taken by Government:

    • In November 2022, the Draft PCA (Amendment) Bill, 2022 was published by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying for public comments. Despite widespread public support for the Draft Bill, it was not tabled in Parliament.
    • The Draft Bill includes significant amendments to the 1960 Act such as the inclusion of the five fundamental freedoms for animals, enhancement of the punishments and the amounts of money to be paid as fines for various offences, and addition of new cognisable offences.

    Way forward 

    • Legislative Reforms: Need to table the Draft PCA (Amendment) Bill, 2022 in Parliament for consideration and enactment.Enhance penalties and fines for animal cruelty to reflect the seriousness of the offenses and act as a deterrent.
    • Promotion of Public Awareness: Launch campaigns and awareness programs to educate the public about animal welfare and the consequences of cruelty.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Discuss the significance of the lion and bull figures in Indian mythology, art and architecture. (UPSC IAS/2022)