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Subject: Environment

  • South East Africa Montane Archipelago (SEAMA) Ecoregion

    Why in the news?

    A recent study has revealed about undocumented biodiversity in the newly recognized South East Africa Montane Archipelago (SEAMA) Ecoregion.

    What is SEAMA Ecoregion?

    • The SEAMA is a recently recognized ecoregion located in Southern Africa.
    • It spans across northern Mozambique and incorporating Mount Mulanje in Malawi.
    • SEAMA is distinguished by its mountainous terrain, encompassing diverse habitats such as montane forests, grasslands, and rock faces.
    • Despite its relatively recent recognition, SEAMA has been identified as a hub of biodiversity, hosting numerous species of plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates.

    Recent Findings on SEAMA Ecoregion

    • Species Documentation: The researchers identified 127 plants, 45 vertebrates, and 45 invertebrate species, including two endemic genera of plants and reptiles.
    • Endemic Reptiles: SEAMA is home to 22 strictly endemic reptile species, most of which are threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation.
    • Global Significance: The remarkable diversity of SEAMA has prompted proposals to designate it as a new ecoregion of global biological importance.

    Conservation Challenges

    • Late Discovery: Despite being located in a region considered the birthplace of modern humans, the mountains of northern Mozambique remained largely unstudied until recent decades due to historical conflicts.
    • Deforestation Threats: SEAMA faces severe deforestation threats, with up to 18% of its primary humid forest cover lost since 2000.
    • Causes of Deforestation: Slash and burn shifting agricultural practices, along with charcoal production, are the primary drivers of deforestation in the region.

    PYQ:

    2013: Which one of the following pairs a correctly matched?

    Geographical feature and region

    (a) Abyssinian Plateau – Arabia

    (b) Atlas Mountains – Northwest Africa

    (c) Guiana Highlands – Southwest Africa

    (d) Okavango Basin – Patagonia

     

    Practice MCQ:

    The SEAMA Ecoregion often seen in news is located in-

    (a) Latin America

    (b) Europe

    (c) Africa

    (d) Asia

  • How much should developed countries pay for climate action?

    Why in the news? 

    As the climate bomb ticks, Global Climate negotiators are working on a new global climate finance budget ahead of COP29 in Baku this November.
    • In 2009, developed countries committed to paying $100 bn every year. However, they failed to do so.

    Context:

    • The 2022 climate change conference (COP 28) held in Sharm el-Sheikh decided to establish a Loss and Damage Fund. 
    • These funds would work as a “transition away” from fossil fuels, and a promise to triple global renewable energy capacity by 2030.
    • On March 22, a two-day meeting was concluded in Copenhagen, Denmark, the first minister-level climate meeting for this year, and a ‘New Collective Quantitative Goal’ was finalized.

    What is the New Collective Quantitative Goal (NCQG)?

    • NCQG represents the yearly sum that developed countries must gather from 2025 onward to finance climate action in developing nations.
    • It has to be higher than the $100 billion that developed countries, collectively, had promised to raise every year from 2020, but had failed to deliver.

     

    Collective Funds need to ensure effective Climate Action:

    • UN Climate Change Report (2021): According to a report by UN Climate Change, developing countries would need approximately $6 trillion annually between 2021 and 2030 to implement their climate action plans.
    • Estimation in Sharm el-Sheikh Agreement: The final agreement at Sharm el-Sheikh included estimates suggesting that a global transition to a low-carbon economy could require about $4-6 trillion annually until 2050.
    • Global GDP Percentage: While these estimates vary, an approximate range of $5-7 trillion annually is suggested to effectively address climate change. This would require deploying about 5-7% of the global GDP towards climate action.
    • Renewable Energy Capacity: Meeting the target of tripling renewable energy capacity, as agreed in Dubai, is estimated to cost $30 trillion by 2030, according to the International Renewable Energy Association (IRENA).

    Prospects for a Realistic New Annual Climate Finance Target:

    • Current Funding Shortfall: The UNFCCC, responsible for organizing climate meetings and facilitating the implementation of climate agreements, is facing a severe shortage of funds. Its budget is currently less than half funded, which hampers its ability to fulfill its mandate effectively.
    • Call for Increased Climate Finance: There is a call for developed countries to commit to significantly higher levels of climate finance. India, for instance, has called for the New Collective Quantitative Goal (NCQG) to be set at least at $1 trillion per year 
    • Need of Innovative Funding Sources: Simon Stiell, Executive Secretary of UN Climate Change, emphasized the need for innovative funding sources to meet the substantial financial requirements for climate action.  
    • Dependence on Contributions: The UNFCCC relies heavily on contributions from countries and voluntary organizations to carry out its work. 

    How will this money be used?

    • On-time Delivery: Ensuring effective delivery of the new funding is essential for achieving meaningful impact.
    • Transparent and Inclusive Monitoring: Developing countries emphasize the need for a transparent and inclusive process to monitor and measure the agreed-upon amount.  
    • Distribution Across Needs: The new funding is distributed across different climate action areas such as mitigation, adaptation, and addressing loss and damage as per need 

    Conclusion: Developed countries must commit to higher climate finance, possibly $1 trillion annually, for effective action. Innovative funding sources and transparent monitoring are crucial for impactful distribution across climate action areas.

    Mains PYQs

    Q  Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics.(UPSC IAS/2022)

    Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)

     

  • Places in news: Afanasy Nikitin Seamount

    Why in the news?

    • India has applied to the International Seabed Authority (ISBA) for exploration rights in the Afanasy Nikitin (AN) Seamount in the Indian Ocean outside its jurisdiction.
    • India’s application is motivated by reports of Chinese vessels conducting reconnaissance in the same region, raising concerns about strategic interests and resource competition.

    About International Seabed Authority (ISBA)

     

    • The ISBA is an intergovernmental organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
    • It was established in 1994 and headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica.
    • ISA is tasked with regulating mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond national jurisdiction, which includes polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.
    • The Authority issues exploration and exploitation contracts to countries and private entities for deep-sea mining activities, subject to certain regulations and environmental safeguards.
    • ISA comprises various organs, including the Assembly, the Council, the Legal and Technical Commission, and the Secretariat, each with specific functions related to deep-sea mining regulation.
    • According to Article 156(2) of the UNCLOS, all UNCLOS parties are members of ISBA.
    • As of 2023 has 169 members, including 168 member states and the European Union.
    • India became a member of the UNCLOS in 1994.

     

    About AN Seamount

    • The AN Seamount, located about 3,000 km from India’s coast, is a substantial structural feature in the Central Indian Ocean Basin.
    • A seamount is a large submarine landform that rises from the ocean floor without reaching the surface, and thus is not an island.
    • It is 400 km-long and 150 km-wide. From an oceanic depth of about 4,800 metres it rises to about 1,200 metres.
    • It was discovered during a marine research expedition, named after the Russian explorer Afanasy Nikitin.
    • It is renowned for its polymetallic nodules containing cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper

    Continental Shelf Claims and Implications

    • Sri Lanka has applied for continental shelf claims up to 500 nautical miles beyond its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), citing a special provision.
    • India, noting Chinese presence, has staked a claim for exploration rights to prevent future consequences.
    • India has also applied for permission to explore another region, spanning 3,00,000 square km, called the Carlsberg Ridge in the Central Indian Ocean to investigate for polymetallic sulphides, which are reportedly rich in copper, zinc, gold and silver.

    PYQ:

    2021: Consider the following statements:​

    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.​
    2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.​
    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on seafloor in international waters.​

    Which of the statements given above are correct?​

    a)    1 and 2 only ​

    b)    2 and 3 only​

    c)    1 and 3 only ​

    d)    1, 2 and 3​

     

    Practice MCQ:

    Consider the following statements about the International Seabed Authority (ISBA):

    1. ISBA is an intergovernmental organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
    2. All UN members are naturally parties to the ISBA.

    Which of the given statements is/are correct?

    a)    Only 1

    b)    Only 2

    c)    Both 1 and 2

    d)    Neither 1 nor 2

  • On Sustainable Building Materials | Explained

    Why in the News? 

    Recently, post COVID-19, India is experiencing a sudden increase in construction. Although expansion offers economic prospects and enhanced living conditions, yet it also presents notable environmental hurdles.

    The Major Environmental Concerns Due to the Construction Sector:

    • The cement sector is a hard-to-abate sector in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, but it is an equally critical contributor to the economic development of the country.
    • India is the second largest producer of cement in the world and plans to almost double its production by 2030. It accounts for over 33% of India’s electricity usage, contributing to environmental degradation and climate change.
    • Globally, about 37% of global greenhouse gas emissions can be traced back to the built environment sector, which includes buildings, the distribution systems that supply water and electricity, and the roads, bridges, and transportation systems.
    • The UNEP report makes a case for “Avoid-Shift-Improve” strategies to reduce emissions.

    Government Initiatives to make the Construction Sector become energy efficient:

    • The India Cooling Action Plan: It forecasts an eight-fold increase in cooling demand between 2017 and 2037, emphasizing the need for thermal comfort while reducing active cooling demand. Reducing cooling demand by 20-25% and refrigeration demand by 25-30% by the year 2037 are the goals of this plan.
    • Eco-Niwas Samhita (ENS): Initiatives like the Eco-Niwas Samhita (ENS) and Residential Energy Conservation Building Code are crucial steps towards improving energy efficiency in residential buildings.
    • Residential Envelope Transmittance Value (RETV): Introducing metrics such as the Residential Envelope Transmittance Value (RETV) play a significant role in measuring heat transfer through a building’s envelope, thereby enabling better energy efficiency. Lower RETV values are associated with cooler indoor environments and reduced energy consumption. The recommended RETV of 15W/m2 or less promotes optimal efficiency, improved occupant comfort, and lower utility expenses.

     

    Materials used in the Construction sector

    • Popular Building Materials: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) blocks, red bricks, fly ash, and monolithic concrete (Mivan) are commonly used materials in construction.
    • Preference for Monolithic Concrete: Despite sustainability concerns, monolithic concrete construction is favored by developers for its speed, strength, quality, and scalability, particularly in high-rise buildings and skyscrapers.
    • AAC Blocks as Thermally Efficient: RETV evaluation shows AAC blocks consistently have the lowest RETV across all climatic conditions, indicating their potential as a thermally efficient material.
    • Embodied Energy Differences: The literature review reveals substantial differences in embodied energy among materials, with monolithic concrete having an embodied energy 75 times greater than AAC blocks.
    • Sustainability Concerns: Sustainability concerns are prominent across all materials. Red bricks contribute to resource depletion, emissions, and waste, while AAC blocks and monolithic concrete also have environmental impacts

    Measures to improve sustainable material

    • Adopt “Avoid-Shift-Improve”: Implement policies and regulations that incentivize the use of sustainable building materials and practices, such as tax incentives, subsidies, and green building certifications.
    • Investing in R&D: Allocate resources for research and development initiatives aimed at creating new, sustainable building materials with improved thermal performance, reduced embodied carbon, and enhanced climate resilience.
    • Promote Market Collaborations: Foster partnerships between academia, government agencies, and industry stakeholders,  in sustainable construction practices and materials development.
    • Awareness: Create consumer awareness campaigns to highlight the benefits of sustainable construction and encourage demand for eco-friendly building materials, driving market demand and adoption.

    Conclusion: India’s construction boom poses environmental challenges. Initiatives like Eco-Niwas Samhita improve energy efficiency. AAC blocks show promise for thermal efficiency. Future steps include R&D, industry collaboration, policy support, and fostering market demand for sustainable materials.

    Mains PYQ

    Q) Adoption of PPP model for infrastructure development of the country has not been free of criticism. Critically discuss the pros and cons of the model. (UPSC IAS/2013)

    Q) Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart vilages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration. (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • The need to curb Black Carbon Emissions | Explained

    Why in the News? 

    According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India had installed a renewable energy capacity of over 180 GW by 2023 and is expected to meet its target of 500 GW by 2030.

    Context

    At the COP26 climate talks in Glasgow in November 2021, India pledged to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, positioning itself as a frontrunner in the race to carbon neutrality.

    Why is black carbon relevant?

    • Cause of global warming : lack carbon is the dark, sooty material emitted alongside other pollutants when biomass and fossil fuels are not fully combusted. It contributes to global warming
    • Poses severe risks: Studies have found a direct link between exposure to black carbon and a higher risk of heart disease, birth complications, and premature death. Most black carbon emissions in India arise from burning biomass, such as cow dung or straw, in traditional cookstoves.

    Status of Black Carbon

    • According to a 2016 study, the residential sector contributes 47% of India’s total black carbon emissions. Industries contribute a further 22%, diesel vehicles 17%, open burning 12%, and other sources 2%.
    • Decarbonisation efforts in the industry and transport sectors in the past decade have yielded reductions in black carbon emissions, but the residential sector remains a challenge.

    Has PMUY helped?

    • Objective of PMUY: The primary objective of PMUY, launched by the Government of India in May 2016, is to provide free liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) connections to households below the poverty line. This aims to offer a cleaner cooking fuel alternative to traditional biomass fuels, particularly in rural and poor households, thereby reducing their dependence on such polluting fuels.
    • Infrastructure Establishment: PMUY has established necessary infrastructure to support LPG connections, including provision of free gas stoves, deposits for LPG cylinders, and a distribution network. This infrastructure is crucial for enabling the adoption of clean cooking practices.
    • Role in Reducing Black Carbon Emissions: By providing cleaner LPG alternatives to traditional biomass fuels, PMUY has played a vital role in reducing black carbon emissions. This initiative contributes to mitigating environmental pollution and improving air quality, particularly in households previously reliant on polluting cooking fuels.

    Challenges and Shortcomings:

    Despite its objectives and infrastructure, challenges persist in fully transitioning beneficiaries to LPG usage.

    • High gap between LPG connections and actual adoption:  In 2022-2023, a significant portion of PMUY beneficiaries, representing 25%, continued to rely entirely on traditional biomass fuels for cooking. This indicates a gap between the provision of LPG connections and actual adoption of clean cooking practices.
    • Low Refill Rates and Energy Consumption: RTI data revealed that a substantial number of PMUY beneficiaries availed either zero or only one LPG refill, indicating low usage of LPG cylinders. Additionally, the average PMUY beneficiary household consumes significantly fewer LPG cylinders per year compared to non-PMUY households. This suggests that traditional fuels still meet a significant portion of energy needs in PMUY beneficiary households.
    • Health Impacts: The continued reliance on traditional fuels has detrimental health effects, particularly on women and children who are disproportionately affected by indoor air pollution. This leads to various health issues and premature deaths, highlighting the urgent need for increased adoption of clean cooking practices.
    • Affordability: Despite subsidies and recent increases(subsidy to ₹300 from ₹200. ), the cost of LPG cylinders remains high for many PMUY beneficiaries. This affordability challenge discourages households from consistently purchasing and using LPG cylinders, especially when traditional biomass alternatives are perceived as “free.”
    • Temporary Subsidies: While the government has announced temporary price reductions to address affordability concerns, the sustainability of such subsidies remains uncertain. Temporary measures may not provide long-term solutions to ensure consistent access to clean cooking fuel for beneficiaries.
    • Low Refill Rates: Low refill rates persist among PMUY beneficiaries, indicating a gap between initial LPG connections provided and sustained usage. This issue stems from both affordability concerns and challenges in availability and distribution of LPG cylinders.
    • Last-Mile Connectivity: Remote rural areas face challenges in accessing LPG due to inadequate last-mile connectivity in the distribution network. This results in continued reliance on traditional biomass fuels, perpetuating indoor air pollution and health risks.
    • Alternative Fuel Solutions: Local production of coal-bed methane (CBM) gas presents a potential solution to address the lack of last-mile connectivity and provide cleaner cooking fuel alternatives. Composting biomass to produce CBM gas could offer a sustainable and accessible solution at the village level, reducing dependence on traditional biomass fuels.
    • Investment and Infrastructure: Implementing alternative fuel solutions such as CBM gas production requires investment and infrastructure development. Panchayats and local authorities may need support and resources to establish and maintain CBM gas production facilities effectively.
    • Rural Empowerment: Empowering local communities, such as Panchayats, to take initiatives in clean cooking fuel production and distribution can promote self-sufficiency and sustainability while addressing rural energy needs.

    To resolve the challenges associated with the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) and ensure effective adoption of clean cooking practices, several measures can be implemented:

    • Awareness and Education Campaigns: Launch comprehensive awareness campaigns to educate PMUY beneficiaries about the health and environmental benefits of using LPG over traditional biomass fuels. Emphasize the importance of consistent LPG usage and the risks associated with indoor air pollution.
    • Subsidy Reforms: Implement sustainable subsidy structures that ensure long-term affordability of LPG cylinders for PMUY beneficiaries. Explore innovative subsidy mechanisms, such as targeted subsidies based on income levels or usage patterns, to address affordability concerns effectively.
    • Incentives for Refills: Introduce incentives or rewards for PMUY beneficiaries who consistently use and refill their LPG cylinders. This could include discounts on future refills or loyalty programs to encourage regular usage and reduce the gap between LPG connections and actual adoption.
    • Improved Distribution Networks: Invest in improving last-mile connectivity and distribution networks in remote rural areas to ensure seamless access to LPG cylinders for all PMUY beneficiaries. This could involve expanding the reach of LPG distribution centers and leveraging technology for efficient logistics management.
    • Promotion of Alternative Fuel Solutions: Encourage the adoption of alternative fuel solutions such as Bio gas production through community-based initiatives. Provide support and incentives for the establishment of Bio gas production facilities at the village level, empowering local communities to produce and access clean cooking fuel.
    • Partnerships and Collaboration: Foster partnerships between government agencies, private sector stakeholders, and non-profit organizations to address the multifaceted challenges associated with clean cooking fuel adoption. Collaborative efforts can leverage expertise, resources, and networks to achieve sustainable solutions.
    • Monitoring and Evaluation: Establish robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the progress of PMUY implementation and measure the impact of interventions. Regular assessment of refill rates, usage patterns, and health outcomes can inform evidence-based policy decisions and program adjustments.

    Conclusion

    To curb black carbon emissions, India must address gaps in LPG adoption by PMUY beneficiaries through subsidy reforms, awareness campaigns, improved distribution networks, and promotion of alternative fuel solutions, fostering partnerships for sustainable impact.

    Mains PYQ

    Q-Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. (UPSC IAS/2022) 

    Q- Should the pursuit of carbon credits and clean development mechanisms set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of a carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.(UPSC IAS/2014)

     

  • Captive Elephant Transfer Rules, 2024

    What is the news?

    • The Union Environment Ministry has notified a set of rules called the Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules, 2024.
    • Elephants, classified as Schedule I species under the Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972 enjoy special protection, but certain provisions allow for their translocation under specific circumstances.

    Existing Regulations on Elephant Transfer

    • Legal Framework: The Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972 prohibits the capture or trade of elephants, whether wild or captive, without appropriate authorization.
    • Special Provisions: While strict regulations govern elephant transfer, exceptions exist for educational, scientific, or religious purposes, subject to approval from wildlife authorities.
    • Amendment: The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Bill, 2022 expanded the scope of elephant transfers, raising concerns among activists about potential exploitation and illegal trafficking.

    Captive Elephant Transfer Rules, 2024: Key Highlights

    1. Circumstances for the Transfer of Captive Elephants:

    Transfer may be warranted under the following circumstances:

    • Incapability of the owner: When the owner is incapable of adequately ensuring the elephant’s welfare.
    • Superior Care: If it is determined that the elephant will receive superior care in the new environment compared to its current situation.
    • Improvised maintenance: The Chief Wildlife Warden may find it necessary to transfer the elephant for its improved maintenance based on the specific circumstances of the case.
    1. Transfer Within the State:
    • Veterinarian Check: Prior to any transfer within the state, a veterinarian must confirm the elephant’s health status.
    • New habitat verification: The suitability of both the current and prospective habitats must be assessed by the Deputy Conservator of Forests.
    • Chief Wildlife Warden’s Role: He/She holds the authority to approve or reject the transfer based on these evaluations.
    1. Transfer Outside the State:

    Similar conditions apply for transferring elephants beyond state boundaries in addition to-

    • Genetic Profile Registration: Additionally, the elephant’s genetic profile must be registered with the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) before the transfer.
    1. Requirements for Elephant Transfer:
    • Accompanying the Master: The elephant must be accompanied by a mahout and an elephant assistant. Adequate provisions for feeding and watering must be arranged during transport.
    • Fitness Certificate: A health certificate issued by a veterinary practitioner confirming fitness for transport is obligatory.
    • Quarantine Mandate: Transport should commence after the completion of any required quarantine period for contagious diseases.
    • Refreshment: Tranquillisers or sedatives: This may be administered to manage nervous or temperamental elephants as prescribed by the veterinary practitioner.

     

    PYQ:

    2020: With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:

    1. The leader of an elephant group is a female.
    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. 1 and 2 only
    2. 2 and 4 only
    3. 3 only
    4. 1, 3 and 4 only

     

    Practice MCQ:

    With reference to the Captive Elephant Transfer Rules, 2024 recently notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change of India (MoEFCC), consider the following statements:

    1. For transferring outside of a state, an elephant’s genetic profile must be registered with the Environment Ministry before the transfer.
    2. The authority to approve or reject the transfer vests with the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests.

    Which of the given statements is/are correct?

    1. Only 1
    2. Only 2
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2

  • Karnataka approaches Supreme Court over NDRF Funds for Drought Management

    What is the news?

    • The Karnataka government has approached the Supreme Court against the Union government, seeking the release of drought relief funds from the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF).
    • This disagreement marks the second major dispute after alleged ‘injustice’ in tax devolution and other allocations.

    Extent of Drought and Water Scarcity in Karnataka

    • Rainfall Deficit: During the last monsoon season, Karnataka experienced significant rainfall deficits, exacerbating the drought situation and affecting agricultural productivity.
    • Drought conditions: Karnataka faces extensive drought conditions, with 223 out of 236 taluks (mandals) declared as drought-hit areas, resulting in substantial crop loss.
    • Compensation Sought: The state has sought substantial financial assistance from the Centre, amounting to Rs 18,171 crores, to address the damages caused by drought.

    Karnataka’s Writ Petition to the Supreme Court

     

    • Legal Action: Karnataka’s petition under Article 32 of the Constitution seeks relief against the Union government’s alleged inaction in providing financial assistance for drought management.
    • Basis of Petition: The petition argues that the delay in releasing funds violates fundamental rights guaranteed under Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution, pertaining to equality before the law and protection of life and personal liberty.

     

    What is National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)?

    • The NDRF is a statutory body constituted under the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
    • It supplements State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) of a State, in case of a disaster of severe nature, provided adequate funds are not available in SDRF.
    • The July 2015 guidelines states that natural calamities of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack and cold wave and frost will qualify for immediate relief assistance from NDRF.
    • NDRF is managed in the “Public Accounts” under “Reserve Funds not bearing interest”.
    • The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) audits the accounts of NDRF.

    Disaster Relief for Indian states

    • Under the 2005 Disaster Management Act, there is no definition of disasters.
    • It can include any event arising from natural or man-made causes that can severely disrupt life for people, going beyond their coping capacity.
    • The 15th Finance Commission introduced a new methodology for state-wise allocations, considering factors like past expenditure, risk exposure, hazard, and vulnerability.

    Institutional Mechanism

    • States have the State Disaster Relief Funds (SDRF).
    • The Centre contributes 75% of the funds (and 90% for Himalayan and NE states) and states contribute the remainder.
    • The total amount is decided as part of the budgetary allocations and released periodically by the Centre.

    In case a state needs the Centre’s assistance, it must follow a procedure:

    1. It should detail the extent of the damage in a memorandum and submit it
    2. If this is acknowledged by Centre, an Inter-Ministerial Central Team (IMCT) conducts on-ground inspections to survey the damage
    3. A National Executive Team analyses the IMCT report
    4. Based on its recommendations, a High Level Committee shall approve the release of immediate relief from NDRF.

    Additionally, the Union Ministry of Home Affairs oversees the utilisation of NDRF releases.

     

    PYQ:

    2014: Drought has been recognized as a disaster in view of its spatial expanse, temporal duration, slow onset and lasting effects on vulnerable sections. With a focus on the September 2010 guidelines from the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), discuss the mechanisms for preparedness to deal with likely El Nino and La Nina fallouts in India.

     

    Practice MCQ:

    Consider the following statements about National Disaster response fund (NDRF):

    1. NDRF is a part of consolidated fund of India.
    2. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) audits the accounts of NDRF.

    Which among the above statements is/are correct?

    1. Only 1
    2. Only 2
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2

  • Live Coral cover in Gulf of Mannar down to 27%

    What is the news?

    • Rising sea temperatures have triggered severe bleaching events, leading to significant coral mortality in Gulf of Mannar.
    • Annual surveys show a decline in live coral cover from 37% in 2005 to 27.3% in 2021.

    Corals in Gulf of Mannar

     

    • The Gulf of Mannar is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean with an average depth of 5.8 m.
    • It lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka, in the Coromandel Coast region.
    • A significant portion of the Gulf of Mannar is designated as the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, established to protect its marine ecosystems, including coral reefs.
    • The park covers approximately 560 square kilometers and encompasses 21 islands and coral reefs.
    • Around 117 hard coral species have been recorded in the Gulf of Mannar.
    • Many islands, like Shingle, Krusadai, and Pullivasal, have witnessed substantial losses in coral cover.
    • For instance, Shingle Island suffered the most with the loss of 72% of its coral cover.

    About Corals

    • Coral are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps.
    • These polyps have microscopic algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues in a mutualistic relationship.
    • The coral provides the zooxanthellae with the compounds necessary for photosynthesis.
    • In return, the zooxanthellae supply the coral with organic products of photosynthesis, like carbohydrates, which are utilized by the coral polyps for synthesis of their calcium carbonate skeletons.
    • Corals are marine invertebrates or animals which do not possess a spine.
    • They are the largest living structures on the planet.
    • Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grow when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.
    • Coral reefs are also called the “rainforests of the seas”.

    Types of Coral

    Corals are of two types — hard corals and soft corals:

    1. Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition of coral reefs.
    2. Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years. These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.

    Conditions needed for Corals to Flourish

    • Extensive submarine platforms for the formation of colonies by the coral polyps (not more than 90m below sea level).
    • High mean annual temperature ranging 20-21 degree Celsius.
    • Clean sediment-free water because muddy water or turbid water clogs the mouths of coral polyps resulting into their death.
    • Oceanic salinity ranging between 27-30 ppt.
    • Ocean currents and waves, as they bring food supply for the polyps.

    How do corals bleach?

    • When exposed to conditions like heat stress, pollution, or high levels of ocean acidity, the zooxanthellae start producing reactive oxygen species not beneficial to the corals.
    • So, the corals kick out the colour-giving algae from their polyps, exposing their pale white exoskeleton and leading to coral starvation as corals cannot produce their own food.
    • Severe bleaching and prolonged stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.

    Reasons for the Decline

    • Climatic Vagaries: Predicted coral bleaching events pose a dire threat to the already fragile ecosystem of the Gulf of Mannar. The IPCC predicts a decline of 70-90% in global coral reefs with a warming of 1.5°C.
    • Ocean Acidification: Increased acidity levels in the ocean due to carbon dioxide absorption exacerbate coral stress and hinder their ability to calcify.

     

    PYQ:

    2014: Which of the following have coral reefs?

    1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
    2. Gulf of Kachchh
    3. Gulf of Mannar
    4. Sunderbans

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    1. 1, 2 and 3 only
    2. 2 and 4 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

    2018: Consider the following statements

    1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
    2. More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines.
    3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. 1 and 2 only
    2. 3 only
    3. 1and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3

  • North Atlantic Right Whales: Threats and Conservation Imperatives

    Why in the news?

    • North Atlantic right whales face a grave threat due to entanglement in fishing gear, contributing to their critically endangered status.
    • Entanglement not only leads to physical harm but also affects reproductive success, exacerbating the species’ decline.

    Impact of Entanglement

    • Lethal and Sublethal Effects: Entanglement in fishing gear leads to energy expenditure, reduced feeding efficiency, and physical injuries, ultimately impacting whales’ ability to reproduce and survive. Even minor entanglements have devastating consequences on female right whales.
    • Reproductive Implications: Females experiencing entanglement events, even classified as “minor,” exhibit reduced breeding rates, with potential long-term consequences for population recovery. Poor health and physical condition further impede breeding success.

    About Right Whales

    • Right whales are a group of large baleen whales belonging to the family Balaenidae.
    • There are three species of right whales:
    1. North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis),
    2. North Pacific right whale (Eubalaena japonica), and
    3. Southern right whale (Eubalaena australis).
    • They are distinguished by their geographic distribution and slight differences in physical characteristics.
    • Right whales inhabit temperate and subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Southern Hemisphere.
    • They are often found in coastal areas during their feeding and breeding seasons but may migrate over long distances.
    • All three species of right whales are listed as endangered or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

    North Atlantic Right Whales

     

    • It is listed as Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List.
    • Only around 360 individuals remain, with almost 90% having experienced entanglement at least once.

     

    PYQ:

    2015: With reference to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES is an international agreement between governments
    2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the world to better manage natural environments.
    3. CITES is legally binding on the States that have joined it, but this Convention does not take the place of national laws.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 and 3 only
    3. 1 and 3 only
    4. 1, 2 and 3

     

    Practice MCQ:

    The North Atlantic Right Whales were recently seen in news for a peculiar behaviour. Identify the correct statement about the North Atlantic Right Whales:

    1. Entanglement in fishing net has led to permanent loss of breeding capability.
    2. Extinct due to commercial hunting.
    3. Generates large amounts of Aspergis, an aromatic substance.
    4. In-situ breeding was successful.

  • What are the rules for elephant transfers? | Explained

    Why in the news?

    The Centre has notified a set of rules called the Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules, 2024 that liberalises the conditions under which elephants may be transferred within or between States.

    What are the rules around the transfer and transport of elephants?

    • Legal Protection: Elephants are classified as Schedule I species under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, prohibiting their capture or trade, whether wild or captive, except for specific purposes.
    • Special Purposes: Section 12 of the Act allows for the translocation of Schedule I animals for special purposes such as education, scientific research, wildlife population management, and specimen collection for recognized zoos/museums.
    • Ownership of Captive Elephants: Captive elephants, due to their historical roles in forest management, timber transport, and religious ceremonies, fall under a special category and can be owned. However, strict rules govern their transfer.
    • Permission Requirement: Section 40(2) of the Wildlife Protection Act mandates written permission from the Chief Wildlife Warden for the acquisition, possession, and transfer of captive elephants.
    • Amendment in 2021: In 2021, the Environment Ministry introduced an amendment allowing the transfer of elephants for “religious or any other purposes,” departing from the previous restriction against transactions of a commercial nature.
    • Controversy: The broad interpretation of the amendment raised concerns among activists and researchers regarding potential trafficking and illegal commercial transactions. Opposition from a standing committee, led by former Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh, was overruled, and the amendment was passed into law.

    What do the updated rules say?

    • Reasons for Transfer: New relaxations allow for the transfer of captive elephants when the current owner is unable to maintain them or when the Chief Wildlife Warden deems it necessary for better upkeep.
    • Approval Process: Before a transfer within the state, the elephant’s health must be verified by a veterinarian, and the Deputy Conservator of Forests must confirm the suitability of both the current and prospective habitats. The Chief Wildlife Warden decides whether to approve or reject the transfer based on these documents.
    • Interstate Transfer: Similar conditions apply if the transfer involves moving the elephant outside of a state. The elephant’s genetic profile must be registered with the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change.
    • Permission Process: Previously, transferring an elephant across states required permissions from the Chief Wildlife Wardens of every state the elephant would pass through. Now, only permissions from the originating and recipient states are necessary for interstate transfers.

    What do the updates mean?/ concerns about the Wildlife Protection Act and the establishment of private zoos 

    • Lax Enforcement for Elephants: While the Wildlife Protection Act imposes restrictions on trafficking of wild animals, including elephants, critics argue that enforcement has become lax, particularly in the case of elephants.
    • Establishment of Private Zoo: The establishment of India’s largest private zoo in Jamnagar, Gujarat, affiliated with the Reliance Foundation, has raised questions about the treatment and sourcing of elephants.
    • Purpose of the Zoo: While the zoo is described as a rescue center aimed at rehabilitating traumatized and injured elephants, among other wildlife, concerns have been raised about its actual operations.
    • Controversial Hosting: The zoo reportedly hosts around 200 elephants, including “healthy animals,” which has sparked controversy. Critics question the need to host healthy animals in a rescue center and raise doubts about the welfare and origins of these elephants.
    • Source of Elephants: There are concerns that some of the elephants in the zoo may have been sourced from the wild rather than being captive-bred or rescued. This raises ethical and conservation concerns about the impact on wild elephant populations.

    Conclusion: Address lax enforcement of wildlife protection laws for elephants. Ensure transparency in private zoo operations and strict adherence to ethical sourcing guidelines. Prioritize conservation efforts and welfare of captive and wild elephant populations.

    PYQ Mains-

    Q- How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act,2002 helpful in conservation of flora and fauna? (250 Words, 15 Marks)