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Subject: Geography

  • Consider the following statements

    Consider the following statements:

    Statement I:
    In January, in the Northern Hemisphere, the isotherms bend equatorward while crossing the landmasses, and poleward while crossing the oceans.

    Statement II:
    In January, the air over the oceans is warmer than that over the landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

  • India’s Monsoon Deficit and Super El Niño Concerns

    Why in News?

    India’s southwest monsoon rainfall deficit widened to 35%, with Central India recording a 61% deficit, as the monsoon stalled before reaching Mumbai. The Centre has placed around 150 to 200 districts under priority monitoring and directed States to prepare crop-wise contingency plans.

    Key Highlights

    • All-India rainfall deficit: 35%.
    • Regional deficits: Northwest India: +5%, East & Northeast India: -43%, Central India: -61%, and Southern Peninsula: -14%
    • Monsoon reached Kerala on 4 June, but its advance weakened near Mumbai.
    • Around 150 to 200 districts under priority monitoring.
    • Government encouraging a shift towards cotton and pulses.
    • Reservoir storage stood at 30.4% of capacity, compared to 25.1% average during previous El Niño years.

    Why has the Monsoon Stalled?

    • Anticyclonic circulation north of Mumbai blocked monsoon progression.
    • Influence of mid-latitude westerly systems.
    • Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is currently in an unfavourable phase.
    • Next monsoon pulse may strengthen with a low-pressure system over the Bay of Bengal.

    El Niño Concerns

    • El Niño: Periodic warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean that generally suppresses the Indian monsoon.
    • U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Issued El Niño advisory on 11 June. 63% probability of a very strong El Niño by winter.
    • World Meteorological Organization (WMO): 80% probability of El Niño developing between June and August.
    • India Meteorological Department (IMD):
      • Seasonal rainfall forecast revised from 92% to 90% of the Long Period Average (LPA).
      • Assigned a 60% probability of a deficient monsoon, the most pessimistic pre-season forecast since 2015.
      • No positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) expected to offset El Niño effects.

    Significance

    • Threatens kharif sowing and agricultural output.
    • May increase food inflation and rural distress.
    • Necessitates timely contingency planning and climate-resilient agriculture.
    • Highlights the need for improved water management and drought preparedness.

    Value Addition

    • Long Period Average (LPA): Average rainfall during 1971-2020, used as the benchmark for monsoon forecasts.
    • Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO): Eastward-moving atmospheric disturbance influencing monsoon activity.
    • Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): Difference in sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern Indian Ocean that can influence Indian monsoon rainfall.

    [2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
    2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • ‘Super El Niño’ forms in Pacific: Why 2027 is likely to be the hottest year on record

    Why in the News?

    The emergence of Super El Niño conditions in the equatorial Pacific Ocean has become a major concern because it coincides with India’s crucial southwest monsoon season. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has officially confirmed the development of El Niño and warned that it is expected to strengthen further during the monsoon months. This

    How Has El Niño Developed During the Current Monsoon Season?

    1. IMD Confirmation: El Niño conditions have officially emerged in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
    2. Strengthening Trend: IMD expects the phenomenon to intensify further during the ongoing southwest monsoon season.
    3. NOAA Assessment: The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) earlier confirmed El Niño emergence.
    4. Peak Projection: NOAA projects the event to peak during November-January.
    5. Intensity Forecast: The event may approach the “very strong” category.

    ENSO Threshold

    1. Niño 3.4 Region: El Niño is declared when sea surface temperature anomalies exceed +0.5°C in the Niño 3.4 region.
      1. The Niño 3.4 region (5°N-5°S, 170°W-120°W) is the primary equatorial Pacific area used by scientists to monitor, define, and predict the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). 
    2. Current Reading: Weekly Niño 3.4 Index reached +0.7°C.
    3. Eastern Pacific Warming: Temperature anomalies reached +2.1°C in the easternmost Pacific region.

    What Makes the Current El Niño Different from Previous Events?

    Emerging “Super El Niño” Concerns

    1. NOAA Forecast: El Niño has officially formed in the tropical Pacific Ocean and is likely to strengthen significantly in the coming months.
    2. Historical Significance: Scientists have projected that the current event could rank among the strongest El Niño episodes recorded since 1950.
    3. Probability Estimate: NOAA estimates a 63% probability that the event will intensify into one of the largest El Niño events in the historical record.
    4. Transition Phase: The current event follows the end of La Niña conditions earlier in 2026.
    5. Global Warning: The UN Secretary-General António Guterres has described the phenomenon as an “urgent climate warning.”

    Why is it Being Called a “Super El Niño”?

    1. Exceptional Ocean Warming: Unusually warm Pacific Ocean temperatures are accelerating ENSO development.
    2. Early Intensification: Forecast models indicate stronger warming developing earlier than normally expected.
    3. Historical Comparison: Scientists have compared the event to major El Niño episodes such as 1982-83, 1997-98 and 2015-16.
    4. Global Temperature Impact: Multiple climate models suggest that 2027 could become the hottest year ever recorded globally.

    What is ENSO and How Does It Operate?

    El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

    1. Climate Oscillation: Naturally occurring ocean-atmosphere phenomenon over the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean.
    2. Recurrence: Appears every 2-7 years.
    3. Phases: El Niño, Neutral, and La Niña.

    El Niño

    1. Oceanic Condition: The abnormal warming of surface waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
    2. Mechanism: Trade winds weaken, allowing warm water to push east toward South America.
    3. Indian Impact: Usually suppresses monsoon rainfall.

    La Niña

    1. Oceanic Condition: The abnormal cooling of surface waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
    2. Mechanism: Trade winds strengthen, pushing warm water toward Asia and pulling cold water up to the surface off South America.
    3. Indian Impact: Generally supports stronger monsoon rainfall.

    Why Could 2027 Become the Hottest Year on Record?

    Interaction Between El Niño and Global Warming

    1. Natural Climate Driver: El Niño releases large amounts of heat from the Pacific Ocean into the atmosphere.
    2. Anthropogenic Warming: Human-induced greenhouse gas emissions have already raised baseline global temperatures.
    3. Compounding Effect: El Niño adds temporary warming on top of long-term climate change trends.
    4. WMO Forecast: Above-average global temperatures are expected between June and August, with effects continuing through November.

    Climate Consequences

    1. Temperature Extremes: Higher likelihood of record-breaking temperatures globally.
    2. Heatwaves: Increased frequency and intensity across multiple continents.
    3. Hydrological Extremes: Simultaneous occurrence of droughts and floods in different regions.
    4. Wildfire Risk: Elevated probability of large-scale forest fires in drought-prone regions.

    Why Does the Impact of El Niño Differ Across Regions?

    Not Every El Niño Produces the Same Outcomes

    1. Climate Variability: Every El Niño develops differently in terms of intensity, timing and ocean-atmosphere interaction.
    2. NOAA Observation: Each El Niño leaves a unique climatic imprint on global weather systems.
    3. Regional Factors: Local ocean temperatures, atmospheric circulation and other climate oscillations influence outcomes.

    Importance of Forecasting

    1. Advanced Monitoring: Improved ocean observation systems enhance prediction capabilities.
    2. Early Warning Systems: Better forecasting enables governments to prepare for disasters and agricultural losses.
    3. Climate Preparedness: Supports adaptation planning and resource allocation.

    How Could Super El Niño Reshape Global Weather Patterns?

    North America

    1. Atlantic Hurricane Suppression: Reduced hurricane activity in the Atlantic Ocean.
    2. Pacific Hurricane Intensification: Increased cyclone activity over the Pacific.
    3. US Winter Impact: Southern United States may experience wetter conditions and flooding.
    4. Pacific Northwest: Warmer and drier weather expected.

    South America

    1. Flood Risk: Northern Peru and southern Ecuador face heightened flooding threats.
    2. Heavy Rainfall: Western South America may experience excessive precipitation.
    3. Temperature Rise: Greater likelihood of unusually warm summers.

    East and Northeast Africa

    1. Weather Whiplash: Rapid shifts between drought and extreme rainfall.
    2. Flood Hazards: Increased flood risk in vulnerable regions.
    3. Agricultural Stress: High uncertainty for rain-fed agriculture.

    India

    1. Monsoon Deficit: Higher probability of below-normal rainfall.
    2. Heatwaves: Greater frequency and intensity.
    3. Agricultural Losses: Increased stress on kharif crops and water resources.

    Indonesia and Vietnam

    1. Drought Risk: Rainfall shortages may affect major rice-producing regions.
    2. Food Security Concerns: Potential reduction in agricultural output.

    Australia

    1. Heatwaves: Higher temperature anomalies.
    2. Wildfires: Elevated bushfire risk.
    3. Drought Conditions: Reduced precipitation in several regions.

    Why Does El Niño Affect India’s Southwest Monsoon?

    1. Walker Circulation Shift: Alters atmospheric circulation responsible for moisture transport.
    2. Reduced Moisture Transport: Weakens monsoon winds reaching the Indian subcontinent.
    3. Rainfall Deficiency: Leads to below-normal precipitation across large parts of India.
    4. Temperature Rise: Reduced cloud cover increases surface temperatures.

    IMD Forecast

    1. Seasonal Deficit: Rainfall expected to be 10% below normal.
    2. Spatial Distribution: Most regions likely to receive below-normal rainfall.
    3. Exception: Northeastern India expected to receive relatively normal rainfall.

    How Do Rainfall Patterns Change During El Niño Years?

    Regional Variability

    1. Northeastern India: Often receives normal rainfall.
    2. Extreme Southern India: May receive near-normal rainfall.
    3. Rest of India: Usually experiences rainfall deficits.

    Temperature Effects

    1. Heat Intensification: Reduced rainfall contributes to rising temperatures.
    2. Extended Heat Conditions: Higher risk of heatwaves and moisture stress.

    What Role Does the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) Play?

    Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

    1. Definition: Difference in sea surface temperatures between western and eastern Indian Ocean.
    2. Phases: Positive, Neutral, Negative.

    Current Status

    1. Neutral Phase: Expected to remain neutral during the southwest monsoon.
    2. 2026 Outlook: Neutral conditions expected to continue for most of the year.

    Significance

    1. Monsoon Modulator: Positive IOD can sometimes offset El Niño-induced monsoon weakness.
    2. Current Concern: Neutral IOD may not provide compensatory support.

    What Oceanic Changes Are Being Observed Around India?

    Bay of Bengal Warming

    1. Temperature Increase: Significant positive sea surface temperature anomalies observed.
    2. Impact: Supports atmospheric instability and temperature rise.

    Arabian Sea Warming

    1. Above-Normal Temperatures: Positive SST anomalies recorded.
    2. Climate Consequence: Enhances extreme weather variability.

    Eastern Indian Ocean

    1. Widespread Warming: Above-normal SST conditions observed during May

    How Could Super El Niño Trigger a Global Food Security Crisis?

    Agricultural Disruptions

    1. Crop Vulnerability: Maize, rice and several staple crops are highly sensitive to drought conditions.
    2. Production Risks: Major agricultural regions may experience reduced productivity.
    3. Market Volatility: Supply shocks can increase global food prices.

    Countries at Risk

    1. India: Rainfed agriculture vulnerable to monsoon deficits.
    2. South Africa: Drought threatens maize production.
    3. Indonesia: Rice production risks increase.
    4. Vietnam: Potential impacts on rice exports.
    5. Brazil: Rainfall variability may affect agricultural output.

    Global Consequences

    1. Food Inflation: Rising prices of cereals and food commodities.
    2. Supply Chain Disruptions: Agricultural trade flows may be affected.
    3. Livelihood Risks: Farmers and vulnerable populations face income losses.

    Why Is El Niño a Concern for India’s Economy and Agriculture?

    1. Agriculture
      1. Crop Stress: Reduces soil moisture availability.
      2. Rainfed Farming: Increases vulnerability of kharif crops.
      3. Yield Losses: Impacts rice, pulses, oilseeds, and coarse cereals.
    2. Water Security
      1. Reservoir Recharge: Limits replenishment of water bodies.
      2. Groundwater Stress: Increases extraction pressures.
    3. Inflation
      1. Food Prices: Reduced agricultural output may trigger food inflation.
      2. Supply Constraints: Affect agricultural supply chains.
    4. Energy
      1. Power Demand: Rising temperatures increase cooling requirements.
      2. Hydropower: Lower reservoir levels affect generation capacity.

    What Lessons Can Be Drawn from the 2015-16 Super El Niño?

    India’s Experience

    1. Rainfall Deficit: India received only 86% of Long Period Average (LPA) rainfall.
    2. Agricultural Stress: Several states experienced drought-like conditions.
    3. Water Scarcity: Reservoir levels and groundwater recharge declined.

    Key Lesson

    1. ENSO Alone is Not Deterministic: Strong El Niño events do not always produce identical outcomes.
    2. Role of Other Drivers: Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), Eurasian snow cover and regional ocean temperatures also influence monsoon performance.

    Conclusion

    The emerging El Niño highlights the growing interaction between natural climate variability and global warming. With risks of weaker monsoons, heatwaves, food insecurity and extreme weather events, India must strengthen climate-resilient agriculture, early warning systems, water management and disaster preparedness to reduce vulnerability and build long-term resilience.

    Value Addition

    YearCharacteristicsGlobal Impact
    1982-83One of strongest recordedDroughts, floods, crop losses
    1997-98Extreme warmingMajor global weather disruptions
    2015-16Strongest of recent decadesGlobal temperature records broken
    2026-27*Potential Super El NiñoRisk of hottest year in recorded history

    Positive vs Negative IOD

    Positive IODNegative IOD
    Warmer western Indian OceanWarmer eastern Indian Ocean
    Supports Indian monsoonWeakens monsoon
    Can offset El Niño impactCan worsen El Niño impact

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2015] How far do you agree that the behavior of the Indian monsoon has been changing due to humanizing landscapes? Discuss.

    Linkage: The PYQ examines changing monsoon patterns and the factors affecting rainfall variability in India. The article discusses how the emerging Super El Niño could weaken the southwest monsoon, alter rainfall distribution, intensify heatwaves and interact with climate change to reshape India’s monsoon behaviour.

  • Aravalli range’s role in shielding Gangetic plains from Thar dust

    Why in the News?

    A massive dust storm recently affected Churu, Hanumangarh, Sri Ganganagar, Bikaner, Nagaur, Didwana-Kuchaman, Alwar and Sikar in Rajasthan, drawing attention to the critical role of the Aravalli Range in shielding the Indo-Gangetic Plains from Thar Desert dust. Scientists warn that degradation of the Aravallis due to mining, deforestation and land-use change is allowing more dust to reach Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, even during less intense storms.

    What are the features of the Aravallis Range?

    1. The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest surviving fold mountain systems on Earth. It serves as a vital ecological and climate-regulating spine across northwestern India.
    2. Location and Extent
      1. Length: The range stretches approximately 670 to 700 kilometres.
      2. Alignment: It runs in a distinct south-west to north-east direction.
      3. States Covered: The range begins near Delhi, passes through southern Haryana and Rajasthan, and terminates near Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
    3. Geological Significance
      1. Age: Formed during the Precambrian era (roughly 1.7 to 2.5 billion years ago), it predates the Himalayas by more than a billion years.
      2. Evolution: It was originally an immense mountain chain, potentially as tall as the modern Himalayas. Over eons, wind and water weathered it down into discontinuous, residual hills and ridges.
      3. Composition: The range consists of highly resistant metamorphic and igneous rocks, including quartzite, granite, schist, and gneiss
    4. Key Peaks and Drainage
      1. Highest Point: Guru Shikhar on the Mount Abu massif in Rajasthan, standing at 1,722 metres (5,650 feet).
      2. Major Rivers: The western slopes give rise to the Luni River (which drains into the Rann of Kutch) and the Sabarmati River. The eastern slopes feed the Banas River, a major tributary of the Chambal-Yamuna system.

    How do the Aravallis act as a natural shield against the Thar Desert dust?

    Dust Interception Mechanism

    1. Obstacle Dunes: Large sand deposits located on western slopes intercept dust-laden winds originating from the Thar Desert.
    2. Wind Velocity Reduction: Mountain slopes reduce wind speed, causing suspended dust particles to settle.
    3. Vegetation Barrier: Native vegetation acts as a natural scrubber, trapping dust and sand particles.
    4. Sediment Retention: Dunes and vegetation prevent long-distance transportation of desert sediments.
    5. Ecological Buffer: Protects densely populated Indo-Gangetic regions from excessive dust exposure.

    Scientific Evidence

    1. Field Observations: Obstacle dunes visibly demonstrate dust interception by the Aravallis.
    2. Vegetation Similarity: Dune vegetation resembles desert ecosystems, indicating long-term dust deposition processes.

    Why are dust storms becoming a growing concern in northern India?

    1. Increasing Dust Transport
      1. Pre-Monsoon Phenomenon: Dust storms commonly occur between April and June.
      2. Heat Conditions: Intense heating and dry atmospheric conditions facilitate dust mobilization.
      3. Wind Systems: South-westerly and westerly winds transport dust across northern India.
    2. Expanding Exposure
      1. IMD Climate Hazards Atlas: Identifies parts of northwest India within a high dust-storm frequency zone.
      2. Dust-Storm Frequency: Climatic normal ranges between 0.89 and 1.55 dust-storm days annually.
      3. Delhi Vulnerability: Long-term records place Delhi and adjacent districts within high exposure zones.
    3. Emerging Trend
      1. Lower Threshold Transport: Dust now reaches northern plains even during less intense storms.
      2. Wind Speed Impact: Dust transport increasingly observed at wind speeds of 35-40 kmph.
      3. Changing Pattern: Earlier, dust transport generally required stronger and more intense storm systems.

    How is degradation weakening the protective role of the Aravalli Range?

    1. Mining Activities
      1. Mineral Extraction: Mining of red silica, granite and other minerals has damaged hill ecosystems.
      2. Landscape Fragmentation: Mining operations create physical gaps that facilitate dust movement.
    2. Deforestation
      1. Vegetation Loss: Reduction in natural vegetation decreases dust-trapping capacity.
      2. Ecosystem Instability: Weakens soil retention and ecological resilience.
    3. Urbanisation and Construction
      1. Land Conversion: Expands built-up areas at the cost of ecological landscapes.
      2. Habitat Disruption: Alters natural terrain and ecological continuity.
    4. Land-Use Change
      1. Pastoral Activities: Intensive grazing pressures affect vegetation regeneration.
      2. Agricultural Expansion: Contributes to habitat modification and soil degradation.

    What is the current state of degradation in the Aravalli ecosystem?

    Forest Survey Findings

    1. Hill Loss: Assessment found that 31 out of 128 Aravalli hills in Rajasthan had disappeared due to anthropogenic pressures.
    2. Topographic Alteration: Significant reduction observed in hill systems between 200 and 600 metres above sea level.

    Affected Regions

    1. Naraina
    2. Kalwar
    3. Kotputli
    4. Jhalana
    5. Sariska

    These areas have witnessed substantial ecological disturbance.

    Government Assessment

    1. Aravalli Restoration Framework: Identified mining, deforestation, urbanisation, construction activities, land-use change, pastoral pressures and encroachments as major causes of degradation.

    What are the environmental and climatic consequences of Aravalli degradation?

    1. Air Quality Impacts
      1. Dust Intrusion: Increased transport of desert dust towards Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
      2. Particulate Pollution: Worsens PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations.
      3. Public Health Risks: Raises respiratory and cardiovascular disease burden.
    2. Climate Impacts
      1. Rainfall Modification: Dust aerosols influence cloud formation and precipitation dynamics.
      2. Regional Climate Effects: Alter atmospheric circulation and radiation balance.
    3. Agricultural Impacts
      1. Soil Quality Changes: Dust deposition affects soil properties.
      2. Crop Stress: Reduced productivity under frequent dust exposure.
    4. Ecosystem Impacts
      1. Habitat Fragmentation: Reduces biodiversity connectivity.
      2. Desertification Risk: Facilitates eastward spread of arid conditions.

    Why are ecological gaps in the Aravallis a strategic environmental concern?

    1. Wildlife Institute Findings
      1. Gap Expansion: Twelve major gaps have been identified within the Aravalli system.
      2. Degradation Linkage: Expansion attributed to forest loss and inadequate ecological restoration.
    2. Dust Corridor Formation
      1. Wind Channels: Openings facilitate unhindered movement of dust particles.
      2. Reduced Interception: Weakens the range’s barrier function.
    3. Multi-State Implications
      1. Delhi: Air quality deterioration.
      2. Punjab and Haryana: Increased dust exposure.
      3. Uttar Pradesh: Greater environmental vulnerability.

    What policy interventions are required to restore the Aravalli ecosystem?

    1. Landscape Restoration
      1. Afforestation: Strengthens vegetative barriers across degraded stretches.
      2. Native Species Plantation: Enhances ecological adaptation and dust interception.
    2. Mining Regulation
      1. Compliance Mechanisms: Ensures strict implementation of environmental clearances.
      2. Illegal Mining Control: Prevents further hill degradation.
    3. Ecosystem-Based Management
      1. Watershed Restoration: Improves ecological stability.
      2. Soil Conservation: Reduces erosion and dust generation.
    4. Institutional Coordination
      1. Inter-State Cooperation: Facilitates coordinated conservation across Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.
      2. Integrated Monitoring: Strengthens environmental surveillance using remote sensing and GIS.
    5. Climate Adaptation
      1. Nature-Based Solutions: Enhances resilience against desertification and dust storms.
      2. Green Buffer Development: Supports long-term air quality management.

    Conclusion

    The Aravalli Range is not merely a geological feature but a critical ecological barrier that protects northern India from desert dust, air pollution and land degradation. Its continuing degradation due to mining, deforestation and unplanned development threatens the environmental security of Rajasthan, Delhi and the wider Indo-Gangetic Plains, making landscape restoration and sustainable management an urgent policy priority.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] The process of desertification does not have climatic boundaries. Justify with examples

    Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of desertification, land degradation and the wider ecological impacts of environmental change beyond arid regions. The article shows how degradation of the Aravalli Range is enabling Thar Desert dust to spread into Delhi and the Indo-Gangetic Plains, illustrating that the effects of desertification can extend far beyond desert areas.

  • With reference to the public Sector Undertaking in India, consider the following statements

    With reference to the public Sector Undertaking in India, consider the following statements :
    1. Minerals and Metals Trading Corporation of India Limited is the largest non-oil importer of the country.
    2. Project and Equipment Corporation of India Limited is under the Ministry of Industry.
    3. One of the objectives of Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India Limited is to enforce quality control and compulsory pre-shipment inspection of various exportable commodities
    Which of these statements is/are correct?

  • Which one among the following covers the highest percentage of forest area in the world

    Which one among the following covers the highest percentage of forest area in the world?

  • Among the following cities, which one is nearest to the Tropic of Cancer

    Among the following cities, which one is nearest to the Tropic of Cancer?

  • Assertion (A): Areas lying within five to eight degrees latitude on either side of the equator receive rainfall throughout the year.

    Assertion (A): Areas lying within five to eight degrees latitude on either side of the equator receive rainfall throughout the year.
    Reason (R): High temperatures and high humidity cause convectional rain to fall mostly in the afternoons near the equator.

  • Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests, the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield productive farmland that can support intensive agriculture for several years even without chemical fertilizers.

    Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests, the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield productive farmland that can support intensive agriculture for several years even without chemical fertilizers.
    Reason (R): The primary productivity of the tropical rain forest is very high when compared to that of the temperate forests.

  • Assertion (A): The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is related to latitude.

    Assertion (A): The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is related to latitude.
    Reason (R): The capacity to hold moisture in the form of water vapour is related to temperature.