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Subject: Geography

  • Low-Pressure Area in Bay of Bengal (November 2025) 

    Why in the news?

    According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), a low-pressure area formed over the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2025. It is expected to intensify into a depression by November 24 and move west-northwestwards.

    What Has the IMD Reported?  

    a) Formation: Low-pressure area formed near the Malacca Strait over the South Andaman Sea. It arose due to a cyclonic circulation.

    b) Likely Path: Expected to move west-northwestwards. Likely to intensify into a depression over southeast Bay of Bengal & adjoining south Andaman Sea by November 24.

    c) Further IntensificationCould intensify further over the southwest Bay of Bengal within 48 hours after formation. IMD is uncertain whether it will develop into a cyclonic storm.

    d) State Impact (Odisha & Coastal Areas): System is far from Odisha coast → dry weather Farmers in coastal and southern regions have started harvesting mature paddy in anticipation of possible heavy rains. The State Agriculture Department has not yet issued advisories.

    (2015) In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the reason? 

    (a) Sea surface temperatures are low 

    (b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs 

    (c) Coriolis force is too weak 

    (d) Absence of land in those regions

  • Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan’s Kyushu

    Why in the News?

    Japan’s Sakurajima volcano has erupted several times sending ash plumes up to 4.4 km into the atmosphere.

    Sakurajima Volcano erupts in Japan's Kyushu

    About Sakurajima Volcano:

    • Location: Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu, sitting on the southern rim of the Aira caldera inside Kagoshima Bay.
    • Geological Origin: Linked to formation of the Aira caldera (22,000–29,000 years ago); Sakurajima developed as a post-caldera cone about 13,000 years ago.
    • Volcano Type: A classic stratovolcano built from alternating lava and ash layers; active vents include Minamidake crater and the Showa flank crater.
    • Physical Features: Height 1,117 m, circumference ≈50 km; originally an island until 1914 lava flows connected it to the Osumi Peninsula.
    • Eruption Style: Dominantly Strombolian eruptions (ash, bombs, lapilli) but historically capable of large Plinian eruptions.
    • Historical Activity: Continuous eruptive record since 963 AD; major episodes in 1471–76, 1779–82, and the 1914 catastrophic eruption.
    • Risk Status: Considered one of Japan’s most dangerous volcanoes due to high activity, caldera-linked magma supply and extreme proximity to inhabited zones.

    What makes it unique?

    • Near-Continuous Activity: Erupts hundreds of times annually, ranking among the world’s most persistently active volcanoes.
    • Caldera System: Built on the Aira caldera, giving it a deep, complex, highly active magma plumbing network.
    • Landform Transformation: The 1914 eruption converted Sakurajima from an island into a peninsula, an unusual event in recorded volcanology.
    [UPSC 2005] Where is the volcanic mountain, Mount St- Helens located?

    Options: (a) Chile (b) Japan (c) Philippines (d) United States of America*

     

  • What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

    What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

    • About: Proposed by Peter Ward (palaeontologist) and Donald Brownlee (astronomer) in 2000, it suggests that simple life (like microbes) may be common, but complex life (like plants and animals) is extremely rare in the universe.
    • Core Idea: Earth supports advanced life because of a unique mix of conditions such as a stable orbit, a protective magnetic field, active plate tectonics, and giant planets like Jupiter that shield it from asteroids.
    • Meaning: The Earth is not an ordinary planet; it is a special case where everything aligned perfectly to allow complex life to evolve.

    How does it differ from other Theories?

    • Drake Equation / Mediocrity Principle: Say that life should be common since there are billions of stars; the Rare Earth Hypothesis says complex life is rare even if basic life is not.
    • Fermi Paradox: Asks “Where is everybody?” The Rare Earth answer is that complex intelligent life is rare, so we don’t see others.
    • Copernican Principle: Claims Earth is ordinary; the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues Earth is extraordinary and rare in its conditions.

    Evidence supporting the Hypothesis:

    • Exoplanet Studies (Kepler Mission): Thousands of Earth-sized planets found, but few have stable climates or protective atmospheres like Earth.
    • M-dwarf Planets: Many orbit small stars and lose their atmospheres due to strong radiation.
    • No Alien Signals: Breakthrough Listen and other searches found no technosignatures from intelligent civilizations.
    • Earth’s Uniqueness: Plate tectonics and a carbon cycle help Earth keep a stable climate for billions of years; such conditions have not yet been found elsewhere.

    Scientific Outlook and Future Research:

    • Current View: Microbial life might exist on many planets, but stable, complex ecosystems like Earth’s are probably rare.
    • Ongoing Studies:
      • James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) searches for gases like oxygen, methane, and water on distant planets.
      • Planetary models test if other worlds have tectonics or internal heat for climate balance.
      • Technosignature surveys continue for traces of intelligent life.
    • Future Missions: Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) and Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) will study exoplanet atmospheres more closely.
    • Significance: The Rare Earth Hypothesis remains plausible but unproven, showing that life may be widespread, but Earth-like complexity could be one of the universe’s rarest achievements.
    [UPSC 2018] Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms?

    1. Continental drift

    2. Glacial cycles

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Meghalaya’s Umngot River turns Muddy

    Why in the News?

    The Umngot River, celebrated for its crystal-clear waters and tourist appeal at Dawki and Shnongpdeng, has turned murky and opaque.

    Meghalaya’s Umngot River turns Muddy

    About Umngot River:

    • Location: Flows through West Jaintia Hills district, Meghalaya, close to the India–Bangladesh border.
    • Origin: Arises from the Jaintia Hills, traversing limestone-rich terrain that naturally filters impurities and maintains clarity.
    • Distinct Appearance: Known for its crystal-clear waters that create the illusion of boats floating on air, earning it global recognition.
    • Length & Course: Flows southward to Dawki town, where it merges with Bangladesh’s Piyain River.
    • Ecological Features: Possesses high dissolved oxygen levels, preventing algal growth and supporting diverse aquatic biodiversity.
    • Tourism Hub: Popular at Dawki and Shnongpdeng for boating, fishing, camping, and eco-tourism, drawing thousands of visitors annually.
    • Infrastructure Landmark: The Dawki Suspension Bridge (1932) is a heritage structure spanning the river and serving as a trade route link.
    • Economic Role: Sustains cross-border trade, local fishing, and tourism-driven livelihoods vital to Meghalaya’s rural economy.
    • Cultural Boundary: Serves as a natural divider between Ri Pnar (Jaintia Hills) and Hima Khyrim (Khasi Hills).

    Cause of Discoloration:

    • Primary Cause: Linked to Shillong–Dawki road-widening project upgrading it to a two-lane highway with a 400 m bridge at Dawki.
    • Pollution Source: Hill-cutting, excavation, and soil dumping along sites near Umtyngar and Dawki caused heavy sediment runoff.
    • Inspection Findings: The Meghalaya State Pollution Control Board (MSPCB) detected uncontained debris and sliding soil entering the river, reducing water transparency.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following rivers:

    1. Brahmani 2. Nagavali 3. Subarnarekha 4. Vamsadhara

    Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4* (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

     

  • Dams and Hydroprojects

  • Floods force closure of Bhavani Island

    Why in the News?

    Flood discharges at Prakasam Barrage on the Krishna River has led to the closure of Bhavani Island from the mainland.

    About Bhavani Island:

    • Location: Situated on the Krishna River, near Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh.
    • Area: Spans ~133 acres, among India’s largest river islands.
    • Management: Operated by the Andhra Pradesh Tourism Department as a major eco-tourism and recreational hub.
    • Accessibility: Lies upstream of Prakasam Barrage, connected only by ferry services from the mainland.
    • Ecology & Features: Rich in greenery, ponds, and meadows, offering boating, gardens, adventure parks, rural museums, and event spaces.
    • Cultural Link: Named after Goddess Bhavani (Kanaka Durga); her temple atop Indrakeeladri Hill overlooks the river.

    Krishna River

    Floods force closure of Bhavani Island

    • Overview: One of India’s major peninsular rivers, stretching about 1,400 km.
    • Origin & Course: Rises near Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra), flows eastward through Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh, entering the Bay of Bengal at Hamsaladeevi.
    • Basin Extent: Covers ~2.59 lakh sq km, nearly 8% of India’s area.
    • Boundaries: Flanked by Balaghat Range (north), Eastern Ghats (east), and Western Ghats (west).
    • Tributaries:
      • Right Bank: Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Tungabhadra, and Musi Rivers.
      • Left Bank: Bhima, Koyna, Yerla, Panchganga, and Dudhganga Rivers.
    • Projects & Dams: Major hydropower and irrigation structures including Almatti, Srisailam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Narayanpur, and Jurala.
    • Prakasam Barrage: Built near Vijayawada to regulate water flow, support irrigation, navigation, and tourism.
    • Economic Role: Sustains agriculture, fisheries, and power generation, forming the riverine backbone of southern India.

  • [29th October 2025] The Hindu OpED: Relief, Rehabilitation: India’s east coast and cyclones

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2014] Tropical cyclones are largely confined to the South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why?

    Linkage: Cyclones are a recurring topic in GS Paper 1 (Geography) and GS Paper 3 (Disaster Management) due to their climatic, socio-economic, and governance relevance. The PYQ links directly to this theme as it explains the geophysical reasons behind the east coast’s high cyclone frequency and sets the context for India’s preparedness and rehabilitation strategies.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The recurring cyclones on India’s eastern coast highlight not only the country’s growing vulnerability to extreme weather events but also the evolution of its disaster management framework. The recent Cyclone Montha once again tested India’s readiness, reflecting both commendable progress and continuing challenges in disaster response, livelihood security, and post-disaster rehabilitation.

    Why in the News

    Cyclone Montha, which began intensifying into a severe cyclonic storm over the Bay of Bengal on October 27-28, 2025, has revived memories of devastating cyclones such as the 1977 Andhra cyclone and the 1999 Odisha super cyclone, each claiming nearly 10,000 lives. Although Montha was not as intense, it tested disaster preparedness mechanisms across Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. The event underlines both improved resilience and the persisting socio-economic costs of cyclones in India’s coastal belt, a region that historically faces the brunt of Bay of Bengal storms during October-November.

    Introduction

    India’s eastern coastline, especially Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, has long been vulnerable to tropical cyclones. Historically, the Bay of Bengal has produced some of the world’s deadliest cyclonic events. While the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) have strengthened forecasting and evacuation systems, the scale of livelihood disruption, property damage, and rural distress continues to make post-cyclone rehabilitation a critical governance concern.

    Why is India’s East Coast So Vulnerable to Cyclones?

    1. Geographical Exposure: The Bay of Bengal’s funnel shape and warm waters create conditions for cyclogenesis, making the east coast more cyclone-prone than the west.
    2. Seasonal Concentration: Historically, October-November are peak months, with nine of twelve major cyclones (18th-20th century) recorded during this period.
    3. High Human Impact: The 1977 Andhra and 1999 Odisha cyclones each caused ~10,000 deaths, highlighting the historic vulnerability.

    How Prepared Are India’s Coastal States Today?

    1. Institutional Mechanisms: Strengthened Union and State disaster management authorities and IMD’s early warning systems have made large-scale loss of life “a thing of the past.”
    2. Evacuation Efficiency: Nearly 10,000 people evacuated from Andhra’s Kakinada and Konaseema during Cyclone Montha.
    3. Red Alert Response: Prompt deployment of NDRF teams and coordinated district-level action in red-alert zones of southern Odisha.

    What Are the Persisting Gaps and Challenges?

    1. Property and Livelihood Loss: Even with reduced fatalities, damage to homes, livestock, and agriculture remains high, affecting underprivileged sections.
    2. Economic Vulnerability: Cyclones disrupt milch animals, draught animals, and poultry, impacting rural incomes and food security.
    3. Infrastructure Fragility: Despite improvements, coastal roads, electricity grids, and communication lines remain highly exposed to storm surges and floods.

    What Has Been Learnt from Past Disasters?

    1. Adaptive Governance: Following disasters like Cyclone Gaja (2018), governments have adopted structural and non-structural mitigation measures, including cyclone shelters, embankments, and mangrove restoration.
    2. Skill Enhancement: Continuous upgrading of disaster management knowledge and coordination among states such as Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.
    3. Community Engagement: Enhanced public awareness and local volunteer networks contribute to faster evacuations.

    What Should Be the Way Forward for Relief and Rehabilitation?

    1. Holistic Recovery Approach: Combine immediate relief with long-term livelihood restoration and climate-resilient infrastructure.
    2. Inclusive Policy Execution: Focus on the most vulnerable coastal communities, particularly fishers and small farmers.
    3. Leadership Accountability: Political and administrative leadership must ensure effective implementation of rehabilitation and reconstruction measures post-disaster.

    Conclusion

    India’s eastern coastline remains a climatic frontier where human resilience is tested year after year. The evolution from reactive relief to proactive risk reduction marks a significant policy success. Yet, the persistence of livelihood loss and infrastructure fragility calls for stronger implementation, community engagement, and leadership accountability. Relief and rehabilitation must now evolve into a model of climate-adaptive, inclusive coastal development.

  • Cyclone Montha makes landfall in AP

    Why in the News?

    Cyclone Montha, classified as a severe cyclonic storm, has made landfall near Kakinada (Andhra Pradesh) on October 28.

    Back2Basics: Tropical Cyclones

    • What is it: Large low-pressure systems over warm oceans, marked by rotating winds, heavy rain, and storm surges.
    • Conditions: Form when ocean temps >27°C, with moist rising air releasing latent heat to fuel convection.
    • Rotation: Driven by the Coriolis force – anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in Southern.
    • Structure: Eye (calm), Eyewall (violent winds/rains), Rainbands (widespread showers).
    • Regional Names: Typhoons (Pacific), Hurricanes (Atlantic/Caribbean), Cyclones (Indian Ocean).
    • Drivers & Frequency: Common in Southeast Asia due to warm Pacific waters, El Niño/La Niña cycles, and climate change.
    • Impacts: Loss of life, property damage, flooding, soil salinisation, displacement, and disease outbreaks.
    • Climate Change Link: Global warming is making tropical cyclones stronger, less predictable, and more frequent, raising risks for coastal populations.

    What is the Landfall of a Cyclone?

    • Overview: A tropical cyclone is said to make landfall when its centre (eye) crosses the coastline from sea to land.
    • Not the Same as a Direct Hit:
      • Landfall = when the eye crosses the coast.
      • Direct hit = when the eyewall (zone of strongest winds) impacts the coast, even if the centre remains offshore.
    • Duration: Landfall usually lasts a few hours, depending on wind speed and storm size.
    • Post-Landfall Behaviour: Cyclones lose intensity rapidly after landfall due to loss of oceanic moisture and increased land friction.

    Behind the Naming of Cyclones:

    • Overview: Cyclones in the North Indian Ocean are named under the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) / United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Panel on Tropical Cyclones (since 2004).
    • Naming Authority: Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC), New Delhi, operated by IMD.
    • 13 Member Countries: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Yemen, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and UAE.
    • Submission of names: Each country submits 13 culturally neutral, gender-neutral names, forming a 169-name rotating list.
    • Non-repetition: Names are used sequentially and not repeated after one use.
    • “Montha”: It was suggested by Thailand, meaning “beautiful” or “fragrant flower.”
    • Significance: Naming helps public communication, ensures clarity in warnings, and avoids confusion during multiple simultaneous storms.
    • Current sequence: Shakthi (Sri Lanka) → Montha (Thailand) → Senyar (UAE) → Ditwah (Yemen) → Arnab (Bangladesh) → Murasu (India).
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

    1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.

    2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.

    3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only* (d) 1 and 3 only

     

  • How do monsoons affect Tamil Nadu?

    Introduction

    Tamil Nadu’s northeast monsoon, traditionally spanning October to December, has arrived early for the second consecutive year, bringing intense and localized rainfall. While excess rainfall was once viewed as a boon for agriculture and water storage, climate change has made “excess” a liability, causing flash floods, crop destruction, and structural damage. The situation is compounded by simultaneous inflows from Kerala via the Mullaperiyar Dam, creating a dual-flood scenario that tests the resilience of Tamil Nadu’s urban systems, infrastructure, and disaster governance.

    Urban Flooding: A Consequence of Unsustainable Development

    1. Impervious surfaces: Extensive concretization and asphalt paving prevent rainwater infiltration, resulting in rapid surface runoff that overwhelms drainage systems.
    2. Inadequate drainage networks: Poor maintenance and blockage of stormwater drains lead to flash floods and prolonged inundation in low-lying areas.
    3. Infrastructure shutdowns: Power authorities resort to preventive power cuts to avoid electrocution risks, compounding public inconvenience and economic losses.
    4. Sewage overflows: Heavy rainfall triggers untreated wastewater discharge into streets and waterbodies, leading to public health crises and water contamination.

    Agricultural Distress and Soil Degradation

    1. Waterlogging and root suffocation: Excess moisture damages crop roots, washes away seeds, and erodes nutrient-rich topsoil, reducing long-term fertility.
    2. Fungal and pest proliferation: Moist environments facilitate fungal infections and pest outbreaks, lowering crop yields.
    3. Nutrient runoff: Heavy rain carries fertilizers and pesticides into reservoirs, degrading water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
    4. Economic losses: Repeated crop failure translates into financial vulnerability for farmers and food supply disruptions.

    Health and Environmental Risks of Prolonged Rainfall

    1. Vector-borne diseases: Stagnant water acts as a breeding ground for mosquitoes, leading to malaria, dengue, and Japanese encephalitis outbreaks.
    2. Zoonotic transmission: Flooded environments increase exposure to leptospirosis and scrub typhus.
    3. Infrastructure corrosion: High humidity and seepage promote mold growth and building decay, undermining structural integrity.
    4. Water contamination: Overflowing sewage and agricultural runoff mix into drinking sources, causing gastrointestinal and waterborne diseases.

    Rising Flood Risk: The Mullaperiyar–Vaigai Connection

    1. Dual monsoon exposure: Kerala receives rainfall from the southwest monsoon, while Tamil Nadu depends on the northeast monsoon. Overlapping patterns cause simultaneous water inflows.
    2. Mullaperiyar Dam’s critical role: Located in Kerala’s Idukki district but operated by Tamil Nadu, the dam diverts water to Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai basin.
    3. Catchment saturation: Heavy rains in Kerala rapidly fill the reservoir, forcing Tamil Nadu to open shutters to ensure dam safety.
    4. Two-directional flooding: Released water flows both toward Kerala’s Periyar basin and Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai, creating cross-border flood pressure.
    5. Ground situation: With all 13 shutters open, Theni district faces submergence even as local rains intensify, turning “shared water” into a shared crisis.

    Infrastructure and Economic Impact

    1. Rising water tables: Continuous rainfall elevates the groundwater level, weakening building foundations and road structures.
    2. Loss of load-bearing capacity: Saturated soil causes foundation shifting, cracks, and collapses in the long term.
    3. Economic burden: Damage repair, relocation, and agricultural losses lead to high fiscal costs for the State exchequer.
    4. Social impact: Displacement, psychological distress, and livelihood loss add a human dimension to the flood crisis.

    Reassessing the “Excess is Good” Paradigm

    1. Changing monsoon patterns: Climate change is causing shorter, more intense bursts rather than steady rainfall, overwhelming absorptive capacity.
    2. Policy recalibration: Tamil Nadu must prioritize water storage optimization, urban resilience, and inter-State coordination.
    3. Adaptive planning: Future strategies must integrate real time dam management, rainwater harvesting, and climate resilient agriculture.

    Conclusion

    Tamil Nadu’s monsoon experience underscores that climate resilience is not merely about rainfall volumes but about water management capacity. Balancing inter-State water sharing, strengthening urban drainage systems, and adopting adaptive agricultural practices are crucial. The Mullaperiyar conundrum reflects the urgent need for cooperative federalism in climate adaptation, a lesson not just for Tamil Nadu but for all monsoon-dependent states in India.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Why is the South-West Monsoon called ‘Purvaiya’ (easterly) in the Bhojpur region? How has this directional seasonal wind system influenced the cultural ethos of the region?

    Linkage: The monsoon is a recurring UPSC theme. Tamil Nadu’s experience, where the northeast monsoon defines urban life, agriculture, and inter-State dynamics, parallels Bhojpur’s example. This shows how regional monsoon variations influence both ecological realities and local ethos across India.

  • Taftan Volcano, Iran 

    Why in the News?

    New satellite data in Geophysical Research Letters (October 2025) shows Iran’s Taftan volcano, dormant for 710,000 years, is reactivating.

    Taftan Volcano, Iran 

    About Taftan Volcano:

    • Location: Situated in southeastern Iran, about 56 km from the Pakistan border, within the Makran continental volcanic arc.
    • Elevation: Rises to 3,940 metres (12,927 feet), Iran’s only active volcano in the Makran arc.
    • Tectonic Origin: Formed by subduction of the Arabian oceanic plate beneath the Eurasian continental plate.
    • Volcanic Type & Composition: A stratovolcano composed mainly of andesitic and dacitic lava, with pyroclastic flows and volcanic breccias.
    • Structure: Features two summits, Narkuh and Matherkuh, and extensive ignimbrite and lava fans stretching over 30 km.
    • Hydrothermal Activity: Hosts sulfur-emitting fumaroles, visible from up to 100 km, sustained by an active hydrothermal system.
    • Eruptive History: Major activity phases around 8 Ma, 6 Ma, and 0.7 Ma; last lava flow dated to about 6,950 years ago.
    • Recent Observations: 2023–24 satellite data detected 9 cm ground uplift, indicating subsurface pressure buildup and reclassification from extinct to dormant.

    Scientific Interpretation and Outlook:

    • Magma Dynamics: Uplift linked to gas accumulation or shallow magma intrusion at 490–630 m depth, possibly fed by deeper chambers (~3.5 km).
    • Current Status: No imminent eruption expected; likely pressure release via degassing or minor eruptions.
    • Monitoring Gap: Lack of ground-based GPS or seismic sensors; reliance on satellite InSAR data for deformation tracking.
    • Scientific Recommendations: Call for establishing a volcano observatory in southeastern Iran for real-time monitoring and gas analysis.
    • Regional Significance: Highlights Makran arc tectonic activity and underscores the need for international geophysical collaboration.
    • Research Importance: Taftan’s reawakening demonstrates the role of remote sensing in detecting hidden volcanic unrest and stresses continuous monitoring to assess eruption potential and regional hazard mitigation.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
    1. Pyroclastic debris 2. Ash and dust 3. Nitrogen compounds 4. Sulphur compoundsHow many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) only four*