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Subject: Geography

  • Satellite data show India’s major deltas sinking

    Why in the News

    A global study published in Nature on 14 January reports widespread land subsidence across India’s major river deltas, driven largely by human activities and observed using Sentinel 1 satellite data.

    Study at a Glance

    • Data source Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar from ESA Sentinel 1
    • Period 2014 to 2023
    • Coverage 40 major global deltas including 6 Indian deltas
    • Spatial resolution 75 metres
    • Population relevance Deltas support over 340 million people globally

    Indian Deltas Confirmed to be Sinking

    • Ganges Brahmaputra Delta, Brahmani Delta, Mahanadi Delta, Godavari Delta, Cauvery Delta and Kabani Delta.
    • More than 90 percent area affected in Ganges Brahmaputra, Brahmani and Mahanadi deltas.

    Key Quantitative Findings

    • Brahmani delta: 77 percent area sinking at more than 5 mm per year
    • Mahanadi delta: 69 percent area sinking at more than 5 mm per year
    • In Ganges, Brahmani, Mahanadi, Godavari and Kabani,
       Subsidence rate exceeds regional sea level rise
    • Godavari delta: Even 95th percentile subsidence exceeds projected global sea level rise under worst climate scenario
    • Kolkata: Subsidence equals or exceeds delta average due to urban load and resource extraction

    Major Human Drivers Identified

    • Unsustainable groundwater extraction: Ganges Brahmaputra and Cauvery deltas
    • Rapid urbanisation: Brahmani delta
    • Reduced sediment flux: Mahanadi and Kabani deltas
    • Population pressure: Intensifies compaction and land lowering
    [2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds? 

    1. Decreased salinity in the river 

    2. Pollution of groundwater 

    3. Lowering of the water-table 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Cyclones

  • Show Cause Notice on Bargi Dam 

    Why in the News?

    The National Dam Safety Authority issued a show cause notice to the Narmada Valley Development Authority over serious safety lapses at Bargi Dam.

    About Bargi Dam

    • A major multipurpose dam
    • Used for irrigation, drinking water supply, and hydroelectric power generation
    • Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh
    • Constructed on the Narmada River

    Historical Background

    • Built under the Narmada Valley Development Project
    • First completed major dam among the planned series on the Narmada in Madhya Pradesh
    • Became the foundation project for the state’s Narmada basin development strategy

    Key Features

    • 21 spillway gates: Regulate flood discharge and reservoir levels during heavy rainfall
    • Bargi Diversion Project: Canal network supplying irrigation to drought prone regions
    • Rani Avantibai Lodhi Sagar Project: Large scale storage and distribution system for irrigation and water supply
    • Large reservoir supporting: Drinking water, Hydropower, Fisheries and Tourism and recreation

    Significance

    • Provides drinking water to Jabalpur and nearby districts
    • Supports agriculture through assured irrigation
    • Contributes to electricity generation
    • Boosts regional development and eco tourism

    Institutional Context

    National Dam Safety Authority

    • Apex body under the Dam Safety Act 2021
    • Responsible for surveillance, inspection, and safety compliance of specified dams

    Narmada Valley Development Authority

    • Implements and manages projects under the Narmada basin
    • Responsible for operation and maintenance of dams like Bargi

    Prelims Pointers

    • Bargi Dam is on the Narmada River
    • Located in Madhya Pradesh
    • Part of the Narmada Valley Development Project
    • NDSA acts under the Dam Safety Act 2021
    • Spillway gates are crucial for flood control
    [2016] The Narmada river flows to the west, while most other large peninsular rivers flow to the east. Why? 

    1. It occupies a linear rift valley

    2. It flows between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras

    3. The land slopes to the west from Central India

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None

  • Minamitori Island  

    Why in the News?

    Japan has decided to conduct test mining of rare earth rich mud from the deep seabed near Minamitori Island to reduce dependence on imported critical minerals.

    About Minamitori Island

    • Minamitori Island is also known as Marcus Island.
    • It is an isolated Japanese coral atoll located in the northwestern Pacific Ocean.
    • It marks the easternmost territorial point of Japan.
    • It is the first location in Japan to witness sunrise due to its eastern position.
    • The island is situated about 1,950 kilometres southeast of central Tokyo.

    Geographical and Geological Features

    • Minamitori Island represents the exposed summit of a massive underwater seamount.
    • The seamount rises from the deep ocean floor along the Marcus Necker Ridge.
    • It is the only landmass of Japan that lies entirely on the Pacific Plate.
    • The island provides Japan with a large Exclusive Economic Zone in the Pacific Ocean.

    What is Rare Earth Mud

    • Rare earth mud is a type of pelagic sediment formed from the accumulated remains of plankton.
    • Over millions of years, these sediments become enriched with rare earth elements.
    • The mud contains significant quantities of neodymium and dysprosium.
    • These elements are essential for manufacturing high performance permanent magnets.
    Consider the following statements: (2021)

    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters. 

    2. India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters. 

    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters. 

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

  • Chillai Kalan Begins in Kashmir 

    Why in the News?

    The higher reaches of Kashmir Valley witnessed snowfall and the plains received rain as Chillai-Kalan, the harshest 40 day winter phase, began on December 21, 2025.

    What is Chillai Kalan

    • Meaning: Big cold in Kashmiri
    • Duration: 40 days
    • Period: December 21 to January 30
    • Significance: Coldest phase of winter in Kashmir
    • Belief: Rain or snow on the first day is considered a good omen and indicates heavy snowfall ahead

    Importance of the Precipitation

    • Ended a prolonged dry spell in the Valley
    • Helped reduce dust and dryness
    • Expected to improve water availability and snow reserves
    • Dry winter last year had caused
      • Health issues like cough and cold
      • Problems for agriculture and tourism sector

    Follow-Up Cold Phases

    After Chillai Kalan, Kashmir experiences two shorter cold spells

    • Chillai Khurd meaning small cold
    • Chillai Bacha meaning baby cold

    Prelims Pointers

    • Chillai Kalan is unique to Kashmir climate tradition
    • Heavy snowfall during this phase replenishes glaciers and water sources
    • Gulmarg and Sonamarg are key winter tourism centres
    • Sadhna Top is strategically important due to its proximity to the Line of Control
    [2015] Consider the following statements: 

    1. The winds which blow between 30° N and 60° S latitudes throughout the year are known as westerlies. 

    2. The moist air masses that cause winter rains in North-Western region of India are part of westerlies. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Kavachi Volcano

    Why in the News?

    Scientists have reported rare underwater footage showing sharks living inside the crater of Kavachi volcano, near the Solomon Islands. This discovery challenges earlier assumptions about marine survival in extreme volcanic environments.

    About Kavachi Volcano

    • A shallow submarine volcano located in the South Pacific Ocean
    • Situated south of Vangunu Island in the Solomon Islands
    • Lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a highly tectonically active zone
    • Among the few active and visible undersea volcanoes in the world

    Volcanic Activity

    • Known for frequent but unpredictable eruptions
    • First documented eruptive activity in 1939
    • Has experienced multiple temporary island forming events

    Prelims Pointers

    • Type: Submarine volcano
    • Location: South Pacific Ocean
    • Tectonic setting: Pacific Ring of Fire
    • Key feature: Temporary island formation
    • Recent relevance: Sharks observed inside a volcanic crater

    [2024] Consider the following: 1. Pyroclastic debris 2. Ash and dust 3. Nitrogen compounds 4. Sulphur compounds. How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions? 

    (a) Only one

    (b) Only two

    (c) Only three

    (d) All four 

  • Hormuz Island

    Why in the News?

    • A rare natural phenomenon turned the coastlines of Hormuz Island into a blood red landscape, drawing global attention

    About Hormuz Island

    • Location: Iran, on the Strait of Hormuz
     • Lies between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman
     • Situated about 8 km off the Iranian coast
     • Area: 41.9 sq km
     • A hilly island with distinctive geomorphology

    Geological Features

    • Composed mainly of sedimentary rocks and volcanic ash
     • Dominant red colour due to high iron oxide content
     • Presence of hematite mineral gives the soil its deep red hue
     • Ocean waves turn pink when they wash over iron rich sands

    Soil and Climate

    • Experiences low precipitation
     • Soil and water are saline in nature
     • Landscape is largely barren

    Unique Identity

    • Known as Rainbow Island due to multi coloured soil
     • Sand and soil colours include red, gold, silver, and white

    Human Settlement and Livelihood

    • Hormuz village is the only permanent settlement
     • Fishing is the primary source of livelihood
     • Inhabited mainly by the Bandari ethnic group

    What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India? (2017)

    (a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase. 

    (b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened. 

    (c) India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. 

    (d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India.

  • Bitra Island

    Why in the News?

    The Chief of Staff, Southern Naval Command, announced that the Indian Navy is setting up a detachment on Bitra Island, and the facility is almost completed. This will make Bitra the third island in Lakshadweep to host a defence establishment.

    About Bitra Island

    • Location: Northern Lakshadweep, Arabian Sea
    • Smallest inhabited island in Lakshadweep
    • Land area: 0.105 sq. km
    • Dimensions: Length – 0.57 km | Width – 0.28 km
    • Lagoon area: 45.61 sq. km (significantly larger than the landmass)
    • Population (2011): 271

    Key Features

    • Cultural Significance: Hosts a shrine of Malik Mulla, an Arab saint believed to be buried there.
      • Important pilgrimage site for locals across Lakshadweep.
    • Ecology: Once covered with thick shrubs.
      • Historically a major breeding ground for seabirds, which declined in the 19th century due to human interference.
    • Climate: Similar to Kerala’s climate.
    • Hottest months: March–May
    • Temperature: 25°C – 35°C
    • Humidity: 70–76% throughout most of the year.

    Strategic Importance

    • Located in a key position in the Arabian Sea, critical for maritime security.
    • Enhances surveillance over sea lanes close to India’s western maritime frontier.
    • Adds to Lakshadweep’s defence infrastructure:
      • INS Dweeprakshak – Kavaratti
      • INS Jatayu – Minicoy
      • New Navy detachment – Bitra Island

    Prelims Pointers

    • Bitra = smallest inhabited island of Lakshadweep
    • Features a shrine of Malik Mulla
    • Large lagoon-to-land ratio
    • Strategically vital for India’s naval presence in the Arabian Sea
    • Climate closely resembles Kerala
    Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? (2014)

    (a) Andaman and Nicobar 

    (b) Nicobar and Sumatra 

    (c) Maldives and Lakshadweep 

    (d) Sumatra and Java

  • India’s disaster response, a slippery slope for federalism

    Introduction

    The Wayanad tragedy of July 2024, claiming nearly 300 lives and destroying thousands of homes, revealed deep weaknesses in India’s disaster financing structure. Though Kerala estimated losses at ₹20,820 crore, the Union approved only ₹260 crore, signalling a widening disconnect between State needs and Union allocations. As climate disasters intensify, India’s disaster-risk financing model shows visible drift, raising questions on fiscal federalism, institutional design, and equity.

    Why in the news

    The Wayanad landslides (July 2024) brought focus to an unprecedented gap between State-estimated losses (₹20,820 crore) and Union-approved relief (₹260 crore). For the first time, the mismatch was so steep that the State sought a special memorandum to claim recovery support. This experience, mirroring similar delays in Himachal, Uttarakhand, Assam, and Odisha, highlights growing centralisation of disaster financing, outdated relief norms, and procedural bottlenecks that slow down urgent aid.

    Where is the drift in India’s disaster financing framework?

    1. Two-tier structure: SDRF (shared) and NDRF (Union-funded) forms the legal basis under Disaster Management Act, 2005; however, practice diverges from cooperative design.
    2. Outdated norms: Relief amounts, like ₹6 lakh for death and ₹1.2 lakh for fully damaged houses, have not kept pace with current needs.
    3. Limited use flexibility: States face constraints using SDRF funds beyond notified categories, leaving gaps during reconstruction needs.
    4. Delayed releases: Sequential approvals (State-Centre-High-level committees) slow down disbursal even during severe calamities.

    Why does classification and discretion weaken the system?

    1. Ambiguous disaster definition: The Act gives no clarity on what qualifies as a ‘severe’ disaster for NDRF aid, leaving room for variable central discretion.
    2. Procedural-not automatic triggers: India relies on approvals; unlike global practices using rainfall thresholds, satellite data, or actuarial triggers.
    3. Bias in allocations: Finance Commission criteria use population and geography proxies; actual vulnerability (poverty, hazard exposure) gets underestimated.

    How did the Wayanad episode reveal institutional deficiencies?

    1. Unspent SDRF balances: Kerala had ₹780 crore in SDRF and earlier deposits but faced constraints using them due to rigid rules.
    2. Cuts in interest support: ₹529 crore Centre interest-free support was withdrawn, reducing flexibility.
    3. Mismatch in severity classification: Landslides treated as “severe disaster” only after delays, reducing timely access to NDRF.
    4. Comparative delays: Similar underfunding seen in Himachal, Uttarakhand, Assam, Nagaland, and Karnataka after recent floods.

    How can global models inform India’s reforms?

    1. US FEMA: Catastrophe declarations based on clear, measurable thresholds; faster releases.
    2. Mexico FONDEN: Automatic fund release beyond rainfall limits; rules-based framework.
    3. Philippines model: Quick-response funds tied to rainfall-fatality indices.
    4. Australia: Funds tied to State expenditure and accountability.
    5. African/Caribbean insurance pools: Satellite-data triggers reduce discretion and delays.

    What is needed to restore India’s federal spirit?

    1. Sixteenth Finance Commission: Expected to overhaul financing architecture, align relief norms to actual costs, revise allocation formulas, and integrate vulnerability indicators.
    2. Unified disaster authority: A national, airshed-like authority beyond NCR to manage transboundary disaster risks.
    3. Stable fiscal autonomy: Allow States greater control over disaster funds without excessive approvals.
    4. Rules-based financing: Objective, measurable triggers (rainfall intensity, satellite data, loss-to-GSDP ratio) to reduce delays.

    Conclusion

    India’s disaster-response financing, originally structured for cooperative federalism, has shifted toward centralised discretion, resulting in mismatches between actual losses and approved relief. The Wayanad landslides demonstrate the urgent need for rules-based, automatic, and scientifically triggered fund release mechanisms. Strengthening fiscal autonomy, updating norms, and adopting global best practices are essential for a resilient, federal, and future-ready disaster management system.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach.

    Linkage: The question aligns with the article’s focus on outdated, reactive SDRF-NDRF procedures and delays exposed during the Wayanad disaster. It reinforces the need for proactive, rules-based, science-triggered disaster financing and stronger federal coordination.

     

  • Volcanic Eruption in Ethiopia and Impact on India

    Why in the news?

    The Hayli Gubbi volcano in Ethiopia’s Afar region erupted on 23 November 2025 after nearly 12,000 years of dormancy, producing a massive ash plume rising to ~14 km (45,000 ft). High-level winds transported volcanic ash across the Red Sea and Arabian Peninsula towards western and northern India, causing temporary disruption in aviation operations.

    Key Facts: Location & Geological Background 

    Hayli Gubbi Volcano

    • Type: Shield volcano
    • Location: Afar Region, Ethiopia (part of the East African Rift System)
    • Dormancy: Last known activity ~10,000–12,000 years ago (Holocene threshold)
    • Geological Setting: Lies on the triple junction where the Arabian, Nubian, and Somali plates are diverging → high tectonic activity.

    East African Rift System (EARS)

    • A major continental rift zone.
    • Known for active volcanism (Erta Ale, Dabbahu, Nabro, etc.).
    • Possible future site of a new ocean basin due to plate divergence.

    Impact on India

    1. Flight Disruptions

    • Several international flights cancelled or delayed (Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Kochi).
    • Airlines: Air India, IndiGo, Akasa Air initiated precautionary measures.
    • Aircraft inspections ordered for those that flew through potentially affected air corridors.

    2. Airspace Management

    • Civil Aviation Ministry, Air Traffic Control (ATC), and the India Meteorological Department (IMD) issued continuous advisories.\
    • No major safety threat, but routing adjustments and cancellations made as precaution.

    3. No Impact on Local Weather or Air Quality

    • IMD clarified:
      • Ash remained in upper troposphere.
      • No impact on ground-level AQI.
      • Delhi’s poor air quality is unrelated, caused by local pollution.

    4. Clearance Timeline

    • Ash plume expected to move completely towards China by 7:30 pm, Nov 25.

    Why Aviation Avoids Volcanic Ash? 

    • Ash melts inside jet engines → forms glassy deposits → engine flameout.
    • Damages navigation systems & windshields.
    • Reduces visibility.
    • Can cause stalls, loss of thrust, and total engine failure.

    Relevant Organisation:
     ▶ Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs) issue global alerts—here, Toulouse VAAC monitored the plume.

    Consider the following: (2024)

    1. Pyroclastic debris 

    2. Ash and dust 

    3. Nitrogen compounds 

    4. Sulphur compounds 

    How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions? 

    (a) Only one 

    (b) Only two 

    (c) Only three 

    (d) Only four