💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Subject: Geography

  • [12th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: A seismic decision: On revision to India’s earthquake zoning, rollback 

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.Linkage: It highlights India’s seismic vulnerability and the need for accurate hazard assessment. The revision of the earthquake zoning framework and adoption of probabilistic seismic hazard assessment strengthen disaster preparedness and risk mapping.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The rollback of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) revision of India’s earthquake zoning framework has revived debate over seismic risk assessment. The proposed revision sought to replace the simplified fixed seismic zoning model with probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, a method widely used globally. It also introduced a new high-risk Zone VI covering vulnerable regions such as Kashmir and the Himalayan belt. However, stricter zoning raised economic concerns, as construction costs could increase by about 20% with a one-zone rise and nearly one-third with two zones. 

    Why does India require a revised earthquake zoning framework?

    1. Urban Expansion and Risk Exposure: Rapid urbanisation increases population and infrastructure in seismically vulnerable areas. Large infrastructure such as metro systems, dams, highways, and power stations require updated seismic design standards.
    2. Disaster Preparedness: Accurate zoning enables safer city planning, infrastructure design, and disaster management strategies. It reduces casualties and economic losses during earthquakes.
    3. Climate and Disaster Resilience: Earthquake-resilient infrastructure contributes to broader climate-resilient development and sustainable cities.
    4. Infrastructure Protection: Critical infrastructure projects must incorporate seismic design standards to prevent catastrophic failure during earthquakes.

    What is the current earthquake zoning system in India?

    1. Fixed Zoning Model: India currently uses a simplified seismic zoning map, dividing the country into fixed categories based on historical seismic activity.
    2. Seismic Zones: India’s seismic classification includes Zones II, III, IV and V, with Zone V representing the highest risk areas.
    3. Limitations of Fixed Zoning: Fixed zones rely heavily on past earthquake records and may not fully capture future seismic probabilities or micro-level risk variations.
    4. Urban Planning Integration: These zones influence building codes, infrastructure design standards, and urban planning guidelines.

    What changes were proposed in the BIS revision?

    1. Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment (PSHA): Introduces probability-based simulations to estimate earthquake intensity and frequency rather than relying solely on historical data.
    2. Introduction of Zone VI: Adds a new highest-risk seismic zone, covering Kashmir, parts of the Himalayan belt, Kutch in Gujarat, and the northeast.
    3. Improved Risk Modelling: Uses dynamic modelling of ground motion probabilities to improve earthquake preparedness.
    4. Alignment with Global Practice: Aligns India’s seismic risk assessment methodology with advanced economies and seismically active regions worldwide.

    Why did the proposed revision face opposition?

    1. Economic Cost: Construction costs could rise significantly.
      1. One-zone increase: Costs may rise by around 20%.
      2. Two-zone increase: Costs may rise by nearly one-third.
    2. Infrastructure Cost Escalation: High-value projects such as metro systems, dams, and power stations may face substantially higher structural design costs.
    3. Development Concerns: Urban planners fear stricter zoning could slow infrastructure development in economically fragile regions.
    4. Housing Informality: Nearly 80% of India’s housing stock lies in the informal sector, raising concerns that stricter regulations may increase unregulated construction.

    What are the broader governance and policy challenges?

    1. Institutional Coordination: The proposal faced resistance from multiple agencies including Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Home Affairs, Central Water Commission, and National Dam Safety Authority.
    2. Policy Consultation Gap: Large regulatory changes require extensive consultation across government agencies, industry stakeholders, and technical experts.
    3. Balancing Safety and Affordability: Stricter building standards improve safety but increase construction costs and housing affordability pressures.
    4. Implementation Capacity: Enforcement challenges remain significant due to informal housing markets and limited regulatory capacity.

    How does the debate intersect with climate and sustainability goals?

    1. Construction Sector Emissions: The construction sector is among the largest dispersed sources of carbon emissions in India.
    2. Infrastructure Lifecycle: Seismic-resilient structures reduce the need for reconstruction after disasters, lowering long-term carbon and economic costs.
    3. Resilient Urban Development: Disaster-proof infrastructure supports climate adaptation strategies and sustainable urbanisation.

    Conclusion

    Revising India’s earthquake zoning framework remains essential for ensuring disaster-resilient urban growth and infrastructure safety. However, scientific improvements must be accompanied by broad institutional consultation, economic feasibility assessments, and strong implementation mechanisms. A balanced framework that integrates advanced risk modelling with practical governance capacity is critical for strengthening India’s long-term disaster resilience.

  • NDMA’s first ever guidelines for identification of disaster victims

    Why in the News

    The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued India’s first Standard Operating Procedures for Disaster Victim Identification. This comes after several recent mass fatality incidents such as the Air India plane crash in Ahmedabad, the chemical factory explosion in Sanand, floods in Dharali, and the Balrampur earthquake.

    Earlier, India did not have a uniform national system to identify disaster victims. Identification was often ad hoc, poorly coordinated, and slow, causing logistical problems and long delays for families. The new guidelines shift India from fragmented local practices to a standardised, scientific, and dignity-based national framework for handling disaster victims.

    Why were Disaster Victim Identification Guidelines Needed?

    1. Absence of Standardisation: Lack of a national protocol resulted in inconsistent identification methods across States.
    2. Operational Gaps: Shortage of forensic experts, poor inter-agency coordination, and logistical constraints delayed identification.
    3. Humanitarian Deficit: Families faced prolonged uncertainty due to delayed or incorrect identification of remains.
    4. Rising Mass Fatality Events: Increase in industrial accidents, floods, fires, earthquakes, and aviation disasters heightened systemic risk.

    What is the Scope of the NDMA Guidelines?

    1. Applicability: Covers identification of victims in mass fatality incidents across natural and man-made disasters.
    2. Geographical Reach: Designed for uniform adoption across States, districts, and local administrations.
    3. Lifecycle Coverage: Extends from disaster site management to final handover of identified remains to families.

    What Forensic and Scientific Methods are Prescribed?

    1. Forensic Archaeology: Supports recovery and documentation of remains at disaster sites.
    2. Forensic Odontology: Enables identification through dental records.
    3. DNA Profiling: Facilitates identification when bodies are fragmented or decomposed.
    4. Anthropology and Pathology: Assists in age, sex, and injury profiling.
    5. Medical Records Integration: Enables cross-verification using antemortem data.

    How do the Guidelines Address Operational Challenges?

    1. Inter-Agency Coordination: Defines roles of police, forensic teams, health authorities, and district administration.
    2. Logistical Planning: Addresses gaps in storage, transport, and preservation of remains.
    3. Administrative Clarity: Reduces jurisdictional overlaps between local, State, and Central agencies.
    4. Capacity Constraints: Acknowledges shortage of forensic branches and specialists across States.

    How is Sensitivity Towards Victims’ Families Ensured?

    1. Cultural Sensitivity: Mandates respect for community customs during handling of remains.
    2. Counselling Support: Emphasises emotional support for affected families.
    3. Transparent Communication: Ensures timely and accurate dissemination of identification status.
    4. Dignified Handling: Treats victim identification as both a technical and humanitarian exercise.

    Who Drafted the Guidelines and How Were They Developed?

    1. Institutional Leadership: Drafted under NDMA’s Joint Advisor.
    2. Expert Committee: Included specialists in forensics, archaeology, odontology, and pathology.
    3. Learning from Past Disasters: Incorporated lessons from earthquakes, floods, industrial accidents, and aviation crashes.
    4. Consultative Process: Involved State governments and central agencies over multiple years.

    Conclusion

    The NDMA’s Disaster Victim Identification guidelines institutionalise scientific rigour, administrative clarity, and humanitarian ethics in post-disaster management. By standardising procedures nationwide, they strengthen disaster governance, enhance public trust, and ensure dignity and closure for affected families.

    PYQ Relevance 

    [UPSC 2018] Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘ Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005’?

    Linkage: The question relates to GS-III disaster management, highlighting India’s shift from relief-based response under Hyogo to risk reduction and institutional accountability under the Sendai Framework. Sendai embeds ethics in disaster governance by stressing human dignity, compassion, and state responsibility in disaster response.

  • El Niño Likely to Develop After July 2026: WMO

    Why in the News

    The World Meteorological Organization has indicated high chances of the development of El Niño in the second half of 2026, after the current **La Niña conditions weaken and transition to ENSO-neutral.

    What is El Niño?

    • El Niño is the warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
    • It is a periodic warming of sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean.
    • This warming disrupts global atmospheric circulation and affects weather patterns worldwide.

    ENSO Phases

    • El Niño (Warm Phase)
      • Warmer Pacific Ocean temperatures.
      • Often linked to weaker monsoon rainfall in India.
    • La Niña (Cool Phase)
      • Cooler-than-normal Pacific waters.
      • Often associated with stronger monsoon rainfall in India.
    • ENSO Neutral
      • Neither El Niño nor La Niña conditions.
    • Currently, La Niña is weakening, and neutral conditions are expected soon.

    Impact on India

    • India receives over 70% of annual rainfall during the southwest monsoon (June–September).
    • July and August alone contribute more than 50% of seasonal rainfall.
    • If El Niño develops after July, it could reduce monsoon rainfall and affect agriculture, water supply, and food production.

    Key Prelims Points

    • ENSO occurs in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
    • El Niño years often correlate with weaker Indian monsoon, though not always.
    • Monitoring agencies include IMD and WMO.
    • ENSO affects temperature, rainfall, cyclones, and global climate patterns.
    [2011] La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from EI Nino? La Nina is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperature in the equatorial Indian ocean whereas EI Nino is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. EI Nino has an adverse effect on the southwest monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on monsoon climate. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) Guidelines 

    Why in the News?

    India has released its first ever national guidelines and Standard Operating Procedures for Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) to address long standing gaps in identifying victims of mass fatality disasters.

    What is Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)?

    • A scientific and systematic process to identify deceased persons in mass fatality incidents
    • Used in air crashes, earthquakes, floods, fires, industrial accidents and terror attacks
    • Ensures accurate identification and dignified handover of remains to families

    Organisations Involved

    • National Disaster Management Authority as nodal agency
    • National Forensic Sciences University for technical and drafting support
    • State police, health departments, forensic laboratories and emergency responders
    • Aligned with global best practices of Interpol DVI framework

    Aim of the Guidelines

    • Ensure accurate identification and legal certification of deaths
    • Create a uniform national protocol for mass fatality management
    • Integrate modern forensic science and digital tools into disaster response
    [2014] Consider the following statements: 1. Animal Welfare Board of India is established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. 

    2. National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body. 

    3. National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • NDMA’s first ever guidelines for identification of disaster victims

    Why in the News

    The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued India’s first Standard Operating Procedures for Disaster Victim Identification. This comes after several recent mass fatality incidents such as the Air India plane crash in Ahmedabad, the chemical factory explosion in Sanand, floods in Dharali, and the Balrampur earthquake.

    Earlier, India did not have a uniform national system to identify disaster victims. Identification was often ad hoc, poorly coordinated, and slow, causing logistical problems and long delays for families. The new guidelines shift India from fragmented local practices to a standardised, scientific, and dignity-based national framework for handling disaster victims.

    Why were Disaster Victim Identification Guidelines Needed?

    1. Absence of Standardisation: Lack of a national protocol resulted in inconsistent identification methods across States.
    2. Operational Gaps: Shortage of forensic experts, poor inter-agency coordination, and logistical constraints delayed identification.
    3. Humanitarian Deficit: Families faced prolonged uncertainty due to delayed or incorrect identification of remains.
    4. Rising Mass Fatality Events: Increase in industrial accidents, floods, fires, earthquakes, and aviation disasters heightened systemic risk.

    What is the Scope of the NDMA Guidelines?

    1. Applicability: Covers identification of victims in mass fatality incidents across natural and man-made disasters.
    2. Geographical Reach: Designed for uniform adoption across States, districts, and local administrations.
    3. Lifecycle Coverage: Extends from disaster site management to final handover of identified remains to families.

    What Forensic and Scientific Methods are Prescribed?

    1. Forensic Archaeology: Supports recovery and documentation of remains at disaster sites.
    2. Forensic Odontology: Enables identification through dental records.
    3. DNA Profiling: Facilitates identification when bodies are fragmented or decomposed.
    4. Anthropology and Pathology: Assists in age, sex, and injury profiling.
    5. Medical Records Integration: Enables cross-verification using antemortem data.

    How do the Guidelines Address Operational Challenges?

    1. Inter-Agency Coordination: Defines roles of police, forensic teams, health authorities, and district administration.
    2. Logistical Planning: Addresses gaps in storage, transport, and preservation of remains.
    3. Administrative Clarity: Reduces jurisdictional overlaps between local, State, and Central agencies.
    4. Capacity Constraints: Acknowledges shortage of forensic branches and specialists across States.

    How is Sensitivity Towards Victims’ Families Ensured?

    1. Cultural Sensitivity: Mandates respect for community customs during handling of remains.
    2. Counselling Support: Emphasises emotional support for affected families.
    3. Transparent Communication: Ensures timely and accurate dissemination of identification status.
    4. Dignified Handling: Treats victim identification as both a technical and humanitarian exercise.

    Who Drafted the Guidelines and How Were They Developed?

    1. Institutional Leadership: Drafted under NDMA’s Joint Advisor.
    2. Expert Committee: Included specialists in forensics, archaeology, odontology, and pathology.
    3. Learning from Past Disasters: Incorporated lessons from earthquakes, floods, industrial accidents, and aviation crashes.
    4. Consultative Process: Involved State governments and central agencies over multiple years.

    Conclusion

    The NDMA’s Disaster Victim Identification guidelines institutionalise scientific rigour, administrative clarity, and humanitarian ethics in post-disaster management. By standardising procedures nationwide, they strengthen disaster governance, enhance public trust, and ensure dignity and closure for affected families.

    PYQ Relevance 

    [UPSC 2018] Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘ Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005’?

    Linkage: The question relates to GS-III disaster management, highlighting India’s shift from relief-based response under Hyogo to risk reduction and institutional accountability under the Sendai Framework. Sendai embeds ethics in disaster governance by stressing human dignity, compassion, and state responsibility in disaster response.

  • Satellite data show India’s major deltas sinking

    Why in the News

    A global study published in Nature on 14 January reports widespread land subsidence across India’s major river deltas, driven largely by human activities and observed using Sentinel 1 satellite data.

    Study at a Glance

    • Data source Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar from ESA Sentinel 1
    • Period 2014 to 2023
    • Coverage 40 major global deltas including 6 Indian deltas
    • Spatial resolution 75 metres
    • Population relevance Deltas support over 340 million people globally

    Indian Deltas Confirmed to be Sinking

    • Ganges Brahmaputra Delta, Brahmani Delta, Mahanadi Delta, Godavari Delta, Cauvery Delta and Kabani Delta.
    • More than 90 percent area affected in Ganges Brahmaputra, Brahmani and Mahanadi deltas.

    Key Quantitative Findings

    • Brahmani delta: 77 percent area sinking at more than 5 mm per year
    • Mahanadi delta: 69 percent area sinking at more than 5 mm per year
    • In Ganges, Brahmani, Mahanadi, Godavari and Kabani,
       Subsidence rate exceeds regional sea level rise
    • Godavari delta: Even 95th percentile subsidence exceeds projected global sea level rise under worst climate scenario
    • Kolkata: Subsidence equals or exceeds delta average due to urban load and resource extraction

    Major Human Drivers Identified

    • Unsustainable groundwater extraction: Ganges Brahmaputra and Cauvery deltas
    • Rapid urbanisation: Brahmani delta
    • Reduced sediment flux: Mahanadi and Kabani deltas
    • Population pressure: Intensifies compaction and land lowering
    [2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds? 

    1. Decreased salinity in the river 

    2. Pollution of groundwater 

    3. Lowering of the water-table 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Cyclones

  • Show Cause Notice on Bargi Dam 

    Why in the News?

    The National Dam Safety Authority issued a show cause notice to the Narmada Valley Development Authority over serious safety lapses at Bargi Dam.

    About Bargi Dam

    • A major multipurpose dam
    • Used for irrigation, drinking water supply, and hydroelectric power generation
    • Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh
    • Constructed on the Narmada River

    Historical Background

    • Built under the Narmada Valley Development Project
    • First completed major dam among the planned series on the Narmada in Madhya Pradesh
    • Became the foundation project for the state’s Narmada basin development strategy

    Key Features

    • 21 spillway gates: Regulate flood discharge and reservoir levels during heavy rainfall
    • Bargi Diversion Project: Canal network supplying irrigation to drought prone regions
    • Rani Avantibai Lodhi Sagar Project: Large scale storage and distribution system for irrigation and water supply
    • Large reservoir supporting: Drinking water, Hydropower, Fisheries and Tourism and recreation

    Significance

    • Provides drinking water to Jabalpur and nearby districts
    • Supports agriculture through assured irrigation
    • Contributes to electricity generation
    • Boosts regional development and eco tourism

    Institutional Context

    National Dam Safety Authority

    • Apex body under the Dam Safety Act 2021
    • Responsible for surveillance, inspection, and safety compliance of specified dams

    Narmada Valley Development Authority

    • Implements and manages projects under the Narmada basin
    • Responsible for operation and maintenance of dams like Bargi

    Prelims Pointers

    • Bargi Dam is on the Narmada River
    • Located in Madhya Pradesh
    • Part of the Narmada Valley Development Project
    • NDSA acts under the Dam Safety Act 2021
    • Spillway gates are crucial for flood control
    [2016] The Narmada river flows to the west, while most other large peninsular rivers flow to the east. Why? 

    1. It occupies a linear rift valley

    2. It flows between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras

    3. The land slopes to the west from Central India

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None

  • Minamitori Island  

    Why in the News?

    Japan has decided to conduct test mining of rare earth rich mud from the deep seabed near Minamitori Island to reduce dependence on imported critical minerals.

    About Minamitori Island

    • Minamitori Island is also known as Marcus Island.
    • It is an isolated Japanese coral atoll located in the northwestern Pacific Ocean.
    • It marks the easternmost territorial point of Japan.
    • It is the first location in Japan to witness sunrise due to its eastern position.
    • The island is situated about 1,950 kilometres southeast of central Tokyo.

    Geographical and Geological Features

    • Minamitori Island represents the exposed summit of a massive underwater seamount.
    • The seamount rises from the deep ocean floor along the Marcus Necker Ridge.
    • It is the only landmass of Japan that lies entirely on the Pacific Plate.
    • The island provides Japan with a large Exclusive Economic Zone in the Pacific Ocean.

    What is Rare Earth Mud

    • Rare earth mud is a type of pelagic sediment formed from the accumulated remains of plankton.
    • Over millions of years, these sediments become enriched with rare earth elements.
    • The mud contains significant quantities of neodymium and dysprosium.
    • These elements are essential for manufacturing high performance permanent magnets.
    Consider the following statements: (2021)

    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters. 

    2. India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters. 

    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters. 

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

  • Chillai Kalan Begins in Kashmir 

    Why in the News?

    The higher reaches of Kashmir Valley witnessed snowfall and the plains received rain as Chillai-Kalan, the harshest 40 day winter phase, began on December 21, 2025.

    What is Chillai Kalan

    • Meaning: Big cold in Kashmiri
    • Duration: 40 days
    • Period: December 21 to January 30
    • Significance: Coldest phase of winter in Kashmir
    • Belief: Rain or snow on the first day is considered a good omen and indicates heavy snowfall ahead

    Importance of the Precipitation

    • Ended a prolonged dry spell in the Valley
    • Helped reduce dust and dryness
    • Expected to improve water availability and snow reserves
    • Dry winter last year had caused
      • Health issues like cough and cold
      • Problems for agriculture and tourism sector

    Follow-Up Cold Phases

    After Chillai Kalan, Kashmir experiences two shorter cold spells

    • Chillai Khurd meaning small cold
    • Chillai Bacha meaning baby cold

    Prelims Pointers

    • Chillai Kalan is unique to Kashmir climate tradition
    • Heavy snowfall during this phase replenishes glaciers and water sources
    • Gulmarg and Sonamarg are key winter tourism centres
    • Sadhna Top is strategically important due to its proximity to the Line of Control
    [2015] Consider the following statements: 

    1. The winds which blow between 30° N and 60° S latitudes throughout the year are known as westerlies. 

    2. The moist air masses that cause winter rains in North-Western region of India are part of westerlies. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2