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Subject: History

  • Places in news: Edakkal Caves

    Edakkal Caves

    Central Idea

    • Kerala Tourism has launched a project to improve civic amenities around the Edakkal Caves in Wayanad, known for its rock art from prehistoric times.

    About Edakkal Caves

    • The Edakkal Caves are situated in the Wayanad district of Kerala on Ambukutty Mala, a prominent hill in the region
    • It is not a typical cave but rather a natural cleft, rift, or rock shelter created by a piece of rock splitting away from the main body.
    • It was discovered in 1890 by Fred Fawcett, a British police official.
    • The caves are also known as “Ampukuthy Mala,” with a local belief that they were created by Rama’s sons, Lava and Kusha, who struck arrows on the mountain.

    Significance of the caves

    • Historical Significance: The caves are historically significant as they are situated near an ancient trade route connecting the high mountains of Mysore to the ports of the Malabar Coast.
    • Pictorial Writings: Inside the Edakkal Caves, there are pictorial writings believed to date back to at least 6,000 BCE during the Neolithic period.
    • Unique Stone Age Carvings: The Stone Age carvings are rare and represent the only known examples from South India, which belong to the Mesolithic era.
    • Cultural Significance: The petroglyphs found include depictions of human and animal figures, tools used by humans, and enigmatic symbols yet to be deciphered, indicating a rich cultural and historical heritage.
    • Indus Valley Connect: Some of the paintings found in the Edakkal Caves, particularly those of a “man with jar cup,” have led to speculation about a possible connection to the Indus Valley civilization.

  • Rare Alupa Dynasty Inscription discovered

    Alupa

    Central Idea

    • An eminent archaeologist made a remarkable discovery during an archaeological expedition near Mangaluru.
    • They uncovered a rare inscription linked to the Alupa dynasty, shedding new light on the region’s historical tapestry.

    About Alupa Dynasty

    • Alupa Dynasty: The inscription marks the first recorded mention of the Alupa dynasty, a historically significant ruling lineage of the region of Tulu Nadu.
    • Regal Demise: Notably, the inscription commemorates the death of an Alupa king, providing a unique glimpse into this ancient dynasty’s history.
    • Siri Cult References: The inscription also contains terms related to the Siri cult, including Siri, Dalya, and Chattara (Chatra), hinting at cultural and religious practices of the era.

    Archaeological Findings

    • Keerthi Sthamba: The inscription highlights the role of Kesava in erecting a monument dedicated to Kulashekara Alupendra. A Keerthi sthamba, a pillar, found within the inscription mirrors an original pillar located in Kulashekara, a suburb of Mangaluru.
    • Intricate Details: The inscription features two panels at the top, with a Kannada script below, showcasing 12th-century characters and announcing the death of Alupendra I.
    • Royal Depictions: Human figures within the inscription represent Kulashekara Alupendra. One panel portrays him in a Tribhanga posture, wielding a sword and holding a gurani (shield). Adjacent to it, the king is depicted seated in a meditative pose, resting his palms on his legs.

    Significance in Tuluva History

    • Tuluva Culture: This discovery provides valuable insights into the customs, beliefs, and societal structure of the Alupa dynasty’s time.
    • Soma Cult: The Soma cult, established by Soma Sharma in the 11th century AD in Gujarat, finds a connection to this region. The Someshwara temple, built in honor of Soma during Kulashekara Alupendra’s reign, stands as a testament to this cultural fusion.

    Who was Kulashekara Alupendra?

    • The Alupa Legacy: Kulashekara Alupendra I, a prominent ruler of the Alupas in South Canara, played a pivotal role in shaping the region’s history.
    • City Establishment: He founded the city of Kulashekara in Mangaluru and enacted stringent regulations for temple administration, which continue to influence temple governance in the region.
    • Language and Culture: Alupendra I was a patron of the Tulu language and culture, contributing to their preservation and promotion. His reign spanned from 1156 to 1215 A.D., with this inscription datable to the 12th century based on palaeography.

  • Colonial and Anti-Colonial Roots of Durga Puja

    durga puja

    Central Idea

    • India is joyously celebrating the festival of Navratri and Durga Puja.
    • While this festival holds deep religious significance, its roots in modern times are intertwined with the colonial era.

    Robert Clive and the Mythical Beginning

    • Multiple Origin Stories: Durga Puja has various origin stories, with one popular tale linked to the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
    • Robert Clive’s Role: Following his victory over Nawab Siraj ud Daula, Robert Clive wished to express gratitude to God. In the absence of a church, Nabakishan Deb, Clive’s Persian translator, suggested offering prayers to Goddess Durga. This marked the initiation of Calcutta’s first Durga Puja.
    • Historical Scrutiny: While this narrative is widely known, historical records raise doubts about its accuracy. Nevertheless, it symbolizes the social beginnings of Durga Puja in Calcutta, driven by the connections between Bengali zamindars, merchants, and the East India Company.

    Sociological Changes under Colonial Rule

    • Rise of Zamindars: With the decline of the Mughal Empire, Bengal’s zamindars, hereditary landowners, gained authority, effectively governing their territories. The Permanent Settlement Act of 1793 formalized their role as intermediaries.
    • Emergence of Prosperous Merchants: Calcutta, as a growing urban center, witnessed the swift rise of affluent Bengali merchants during Company rule. Economic opportunities led to rapid wealth accumulation by families like the Tagores and the Mullicks.
    • Conspicuous Consumption: Durga Puja became a platform for the nouveau riche to flaunt their affluence. Lavish celebrations, gold-adorned idols, and entertainment from nautch girls characterized these grand events, fostering competition among rival families.

    Durga Puja Takes a Nationalistic Turn

    • Late 19th-Century Nationalism: In the late 19th century, feelings of nationalism began to surge among the Bengali intelligentsia. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s “Ananda Math,” published in 1882, popularized the phrase “Bande Mataram” and introduced the concept of the “mother” nation.
    • Durga as a Symbol: Goddess Durga, revered as “Ma” (mother) Durga, came to symbolize the nation and its potential saviour from foreign rule. Durga Puja became an integral part of the burgeoning nationalist movement.
    • Response to Partition: Lord Curzon’s decision to Partition Bengal in 1905 fueled the Swadeshi Movement, with “Bande Mataram” as its rallying cry. Communal festivities, including Durga Puja, played a pivotal role in forging collective consciousness and action.
    • Swadeshi Symbolism: Durga Puja underwent a transformation during this period, with advertisements promoting indigenous products and festivities emphasizing indigenous values. British elites became less welcome at the pujas, reflecting a growing sense of nationalism.

    Shift towards Public Celebrations

    • 1920s Transformation: In the 1920s, public Durga Pujas emerged, marking a shift from exclusive festivals for the wealthy elite to inclusive celebrations for all. The first “sarbojanin” or “universal” Puja was organized in 1926 in Calcutta’s Maniktala area.
    • Inclusive Tradition: These public Pujas, organized by locality, welcomed people regardless of their caste or residence. Temporary temples, known as pandals, sprung up in public spaces, making the festivities accessible to a broader audience.

    Conclusion

    • The evolution of Durga Puja, from its colonial-era origins to a celebration of nationalism and inclusivity, reflects the dynamic nature of culture and society.
    • It has transformed from an occasion for the elite to showcase wealth to a festival that unites people across backgrounds, embracing unity in diversity.
    • Durga Puja continues to be a cherished tradition that weaves together history, culture, and the essence of Bengal.

  • Tribes in news: Hakki- Pikki

    hikki

    Central idea: Thirty-one tribals belonging to the ‘Hakki-Pikki’ community from Karnataka are stranded in Sudan due to violent clashes between a paramilitary force and the country’s armed forces.

    Who are the Hakki-Pikkis?

    Description
    Origin Migrated from northern India to Karnataka.
    Traditional Occupation Traditionally known for bird hunting, which was later outlawed.
    Language Indo-Aryan language called ‘Vaagri’ and use Kannada for daily business.
    Location Predominantly found in Shivamogga, Davanagere, and Mysuru districts of Karnataka
    Lineage A matriarchal community, where women have an important role in decision-making.
    Traditional  Knowledge Known for selling indigenous medicines developed based on their knowledge of plants and herbs.

    Language and UNESCO Listing

    • ‘Vaagri’ has been listed as one of the endangered languages by UNESCO.
    • This indicates that the language is at risk of becoming extinct in the future, highlighting the importance of preserving and promoting it.

  • Sammakka-Sarakka University: A Tribute to Tribal Legends

    Central Idea

    • The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal to set up a central Sammakka-Sarakka Tribal University in Telangana.
    • The establishment of this University was a commitment made by the Central government under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, of 2014.
    • Both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana were promised support to establish a tribal university each.

    Legend of Sammakka and Sarakka

    • Sammakka-Sarakka: The university is named after Sammakka-Sarakka, a revered mother-daughter duo among the local tribal community.
    • Historical Significance: Sammakka was married to Pagididda Raju, a feudal chief of the Kakatiyas dynasty, and had two daughters, Sarakka and Nagulamma, along with a son named Jampanna. The legend revolves around their battle against local rulers in protest against taxing the Koya people.
    • Sammakka Saralamma Jatara: This biennial festival, held in Mulugu, commemorates the 13th-century battle of the mother-daughter duo. It is considered one of the world’s largest tribal gatherings.
    • Evolution of the Festival: Initially, only around 2,000 people, primarily from the Koya tribe, attended the festival. However, over time, it transformed into a large Hindu religious event, with millions of devotees attending.
    • Political and Social Impact: The festival gained immense political and social significance, leading to its declaration as a state festival in 1996. Infrastructure development, including a motorable road, further boosted its popularity.

    Significance of Sammakka and Sarakka

    • Massive Footfall: The festival attracts around 1.5 crore devotees from various tribal and non-tribal communities, including those from multiple states such as Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Jharkhand.
    • Ministry of Tribal Affairs Participation: The Ministry of Tribal Affairs and the Telangana state government actively participate in the festival, with significant financial support.
    • Infrastructure Development: Funds have been allocated for community shelters and infrastructure in and around Medaram, the festival’s location.
    • Tribal Circuit Development: The Ministry of Tourism sanctioned funds for the integrated development of the tribal circuit, including the temple of Sammakka-Sarakka.

    Significance of Mulugu

    • Population and Demographics: Mulugu, a reserved Scheduled Tribes (ST) assembly seat, has a population of approximately 2.6 lakhs, with a 75% ST population as per the 2011 Census.
    • UNESCO World Heritage Site: The UNESCO World Heritage Site of Ramappa Temple, located about 15 km from Mulugu, adds to the area’s cultural richness.

  • In news: Dadasaheb Phalke Award

     Central Idea

    • Union Information and Broadcasting Minister announced that veteran actor Waheeda Rehman would be given the Dadasaheb Phalke Lifetime Achievement Award for 2021, honouring her stellar contribution to Indian cinema.

    About Dadasaheb Phalke Award

    Purpose Highest honor in Indian cinema for outstanding contributions to its growth and development.
    Inception Instituted by the Indian government in 1969.
    Named After Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, “Father of Indian Cinema.”
    Components ‘Swarna Kamal’ (Golden Lotus), INR 10 lakh cash prize, certificate, silk scroll, and shawl.
    Presentation By the President of India in the presence of key film industry representatives and officials.
    First Recipient Devika Rani Roerich (1969).

    Who was Dadasaheb Phalke?

    • Early Life: Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, born in 1870 in Trimbak, Maharashtra, had a diverse career. He initially studied engineering and sculpture and later developed a fascination for motion pictures after watching the 1906 silent film ‘The Life of Christ.’
    • Varied Pursuits: Before entering the world of cinema, Phalke worked as a photographer, owned a printing press, and even collaborated with the renowned painter Raja Ravi Varma.
    • Filmmaking Pioneer: In 1913, Phalke scripted, produced, and directed India’s inaugural feature film, the silent masterpiece ‘Raja Harishchandra.’ This groundbreaking film’s commercial success marked the beginning of Phalke’s prolific career in which he created 95 more films and 26 short films over the next 19 years.
    • Father of Indian Cinema: Dhundiraj Govind Phalke is hailed as the “Father of Indian Cinema” for his pioneering contributions to the country’s film industry.

  • How Indians and their Boats fared in the Deep Sea?

    boat

    Central Idea

    • A groundbreaking 21-meter-long ship, constructed using an age-old technique of stitching wooden planks with ropes, cords, coconut fibers, natural resins, and oils, is scheduled to embark ‘Baliyatra’ from Odisha to Bali, Indonesia.
    • The initiative, led by the Govt. of India, aims to rekindle the nation’s rich maritime tradition and heritage.
    • This remarkable journey will be manned by a crew from the Indian Navy.

    Early Evidence of Maritime Trade

    • Ancient Maritime Trade: The presence of maritime trade networks dating back to circa 3300-1300 BCE is supported by evidence from the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and coastal sites along the Arabian Sea. The engineering marvel of the dock at Lothal in Gujarat stands as a testament to the Indus civilization’s profound understanding of tides and winds.
    • Historical Accounts: Ancient texts, including the Vedas (circa 1500-500 BCE), contain vivid accounts of seafaring adventures and the associated risks. Furthermore, the Jataka Tales (circa 300 BCE-400 CE) and Tamil Sangam literature (circa 300 BCE-300 CE) provide explicit references to maritime activities.

    Challenges in Recognizing Maritime Heritage

    • Historiographical Biases: Historians have often marginalized India’s maritime heritage in favor of narratives centered on land-based polities. This bias has led to the neglect of India’s maritime contributions.
    • Emergence of Deep-Sea Voyages: The 1st century BCE witnessed intensified mid-ocean voyages driven by the Roman Empire’s demand for Eastern commodities, which harnessed monsoon winds and marked a significant turning point in maritime activity.

    Ancient Indian Boats and Shipbuilding

    • Limited Knowledge: The field of marine archaeology in India remains at an early stage of development, with primary insights derived from boat-building traditions, artistic depictions, and literary sources.
    • Traditional Boat-Building Techniques: Indian boat construction traditions favor stitching planks of wood together instead of using nails. These traditions encompass coir-stitched, jong (Southeast Asian), and Austronesian methods, each employing various stitching techniques.
    • Wood Selection: Selection of wood types for shipbuilding depended on their suitability for specific ship components. Mangrove wood excelled in creating sturdy dowels, while teak was preferred for planks, keels, stem, and stern posts.

    India’s Role in Maritime Trade

    • Trade Lake of the Indian Ocean: By the Common Era, the Indian Ocean had evolved into a thriving trade network, with India positioned at its heart. This network facilitated trade connections between India and Europe via the Middle East and Africa in the west, as well as Southeast Asia, China, and Malaysia in the east.
    • Evidence of Scale: Estimates indicate the colossal scale of trade, with customs taxes collected from the Red Sea trade route alone contributing significantly to the Roman exchequer.

    Uncovering a Hidden Past

    • Ongoing Exploration: Recent excavations have provided substantial insights into India’s maritime history. Nevertheless, experts acknowledge that numerous discoveries await on this journey of exploration.
    • Need for Investment: Marine archaeology in India requires increased funding and recognition to unlock its full potential and contribute meaningfully to humanity’s understanding of the past.
    • Value of Knowledge: Scientific archaeology’s pursuit of India’s deep maritime past offers the potential for immense benefits to humanity. Engaging with this history challenges conventional narratives and represents a subversive yet essential endeavor.

    Conclusion

    • The forthcoming voyage of the stitched ship symbolizes India’s dedicated efforts to rejuvenate its maritime heritage, shedding light on the forgotten history of Indian seafarers and their remarkable vessels.
    • Through exploration and study, India seeks to restore the rightful place of its maritime legacy in the annals of history.

  • How the Sikh migration to Canada began?

    canada sikh

    Central Idea

    • Canadian PM recently shared evidence with India, alleging the involvement of Indian agents in the killing of pro-Khalistan leader Hardeep Singh Nijjar.
    • This claim triggered a diplomatic stand-off between Canada and India, with India accusing Canada of sheltering Khalistani terrorists and extremists.

    Sikh Diaspora in Canada

    • Significant Population: According to the 2021 Canadian census, Sikhs account for 2.1% of Canada’s population, making Canada home to the largest Sikh population outside India.
    • Historical Migration: Sikhs have been migrating to Canada for over a century, primarily driven by their involvement in the British Empire’s armed services.
    • Expansion of the Empire: Wherever the British Empire expanded, Sikhs migrated, including countries in the Far East and East Africa.

    Early Years of Sikh Migration

    • Queen Victoria’s Jubilee: Sikh migration to Canada began in 1897 during Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee. Kesur Singh, a Risaldar Major in the British India Army, is considered one of the first Sikh settlers to arrive in Canada that year.
    • Laborers and Sojourners: The first significant wave of Sikh migration to Canada occurred in the early 1900s, with most migrants working as laborers in British Columbia’s logging industry and Ontario’s manufacturing sector.
    • Intent to Remit: Many of the early Sikh immigrants were sojourners, intending to stay for only a few years and remit their savings back to India.

    Challenges and Pushback

    • Hostility and Prejudice: Sikh migrants faced hostility from locals who perceived them as job competitors. They also encountered racial and cultural prejudices.
    • Tightened Regulations: Due to mounting public pressure, the Canadian government imposed stringent regulations, such as requiring Asian immigrants to possess a specified sum of money and arrive only via a continuous journey from their country of origin.
    • Komagata Maru Incident: In 1914, the Komagata Maru incident occurred, where a ship carrying 376 South Asian passengers, mostly Sikhs, was detained in Vancouver for two months and then forced to return to Asia. This incident resulted in fatalities.

    Turning Point after World War II

    • Relaxing Immigration Policy: After World War II, Canada’s immigration policy shifted for several reasons, including a commitment to the United Nations’ stance against racial discrimination, economic expansion, and a need for laborers.
    • Importance of Human Capital: Canada turned to third-world countries for the import of human capital, leading to a decline in European immigration.
    • Points System: In 1967, Canada introduced the ‘points system,’ focusing on skills as the main criterion for non-dependent relatives’ admission, eliminating racial preferences.

    Conclusion

    • The history of Sikh migration to Canada spans over a century, marked by challenges, prejudice, and policy changes.
    • Today, Canada is home to a thriving Sikh community, showcasing the transformative journey from early struggles to a more inclusive and skill-based immigration system.

  • Documented Tripitaka: Tracing Buddhism’s Sri Lanka Connection

    tripitaka

    Central Idea

    • A team from Buddhavanam Theme Park in Hyderabad embarked on a significant visit to Sri Lanka.
    • Their destination: the third-century BC Buddhist rock-cut caves at Mathale, situated on the Colombo-Kandy route.

    Why such move?

    • The team noted that the teachings of Lord Buddha, known as Tripitaka (Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma pitakas), were originally transmitted orally.
    • However, it was under the auspices of Sri Lankan king Devanampiya Tissa, a contemporary of King Asoka, that these teachings were written on palm leaves in Sri Lanka.
    • This event marked the advent of Buddhist literature in India.

    About Tripitaka

    • The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon, is a collection of sacred Buddhist scriptures that form the foundational texts of the Theravada Buddhist tradition.
    • It is divided into three sections, known as the Tripitaka, which literally means “Three Baskets.”

    History and significance

    • The Tripitaka was orally transmitted from the time of Gautama Buddha in the 5th century BCE until it was eventually written down in the 1st century BCE.
    • It holds immense historical and religious significance as it contains the teachings, discourses, rules, and guidelines given by the Buddha and his prominent disciples.

    Composition of the Tripitaka:

    (1) Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline):

    • Comprises the rules and guidelines for monastic discipline in the Buddhist community.
    • Provides detailed instructions on the conduct and behavior expected from monks and nuns.
    • Covers various aspects, including ethical guidelines, disciplinary codes, and procedures for resolving disputes.
    • Offers insights into the monastic life, the organization of the Sangha (monastic community), and the role of the monastic code in maintaining harmony and ethical conduct.

    (2) Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses):

    • Contains the discourses and teachings delivered by Buddha and his close disciples.
    • Includes a vast collection of discourses covering a wide range of topics, such as ethics, meditation, philosophy, and social issues.
    • Consists of individual Suttas (discourses) grouped into different collections or Nikayas, such as the Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (Middle-Length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourses), and Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Discourses).
    • Presents the Buddha’s profound teachings on the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, dependent origination, and other core concepts of Buddhism.

    (3) Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings):

    • Provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of Buddhist philosophy and psychology.
    • Explores the nature of mind, consciousness, and reality in intricate detail.
    • Presents the teachings in a more technical and analytical manner, offering an advanced understanding of Buddhist concepts.
    • Divided into seven books, known as the Abhidhamma books, which delve into topics such as consciousness, mental factors, elements, and the path to liberation.
    • Offers a deep exploration of the ultimate nature of existence and the workings of the mind.

    Features and Characteristics

    • Authenticity and Authority: The Tripitaka is regarded as the most authoritative and authentic collection of Buddhist scriptures in the Theravada tradition.
    • Canonical Language: The texts are primarily written in Pali, an ancient Indian language close to the language spoken during the Buddha’s time.
    • Extensive Coverage: The Tripitaka covers a wide range of topics, offering comprehensive guidance for practitioners in various aspects of life.
    • Preservation of Early Buddhist Teachings: The Tripitaka is believed to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha, providing insights into his wisdom and teachings.

  • 108-Foot Adi Shankaracharya Statue in Omkareshwar, MP

    Adi Shankaracharya

    Central Idea

    • A monumental 108-foot-tall statue of Hindu saint Adi Shankaracharya, known as ‘Ekatmata Ki Pratima’ (Statue of Oneness), was recently unveiled in Omkareshwar, Khandwa district, Madhya Pradesh.
    • This project is part of the government’s efforts to develop Omkareshwar as a prominent religious and tourism destination.

    Adi Shankaracharya: A Brief Overview

    • Adi Shankaracharya was a prominent Indian philosopher and theologian, often referred to as Sankara (Jagatguru). He was a staunch advocate of ancient Hinduism.
    • His birthplace Kaladi in Ernakulam, Kerala, is poised to be declared a national monument.
    • He received guidance from his guru, Govinda Bhagavatpada, under whom he diligently studied texts like ‘Gaudapadiya Karika,’ ‘Brahmasutra,’ Vedas, and Upanishads.
    • Shankara propagated the philosophies of ‘Advaita Vedanta’ and ‘Dashanami Sampradaya,’ earning him the title ‘Shankaracharya’ among his disciples.

    His Philosophy: Advaita Vedanta

    • Non-Dualism: Shankaracharya’s philosophy, known as ‘Advaita Vedanta,’ espouses non-dualism.
    • Ultimate Reality: It asserts that the world exists due to the creative energy (Maya) of Brahman, the ultimate, transcendent, and immanent God of the later Vedas.
    • Identity of Self: In Advaita Vedanta, the transcendental self of the universe (Atman) and the experiencing self (Jiva) are both identical in truth – both are Brahman. However, the individual self appears different, akin to space inside a container seeming distinct from space as a whole.
    • Overcoming Error: Mistakes and ignorance lead to a plurality (Avidya), but understanding Brahman eliminates these errors, resulting in liberation from the cycle of reincarnation and worldly servitude.

    Disciples of Adi Shankaracharya

    Shankaracharya’s four closest disciples played pivotal roles in propagating his teachings:

    1. Padmapada: Known for his deep devotion and poetry.
    2. Totakacharya: Devoted to Shankaracharya’s mission and revered for his poetry “Totakashtakam.”
    3. Hasta Malaka: A child prodigy who astounded Shankaracharya with his understanding of Advaita philosophy.
    4. Sureshwara: Initially a householder, he became a disciple after losing a philosophical debate to Shankaracharya.

    Contributions of Adi Shankaracharya

    • Shankaracharya introduced the ‘Shanmata’ system, which emphasized worship of the five principal deities and restored the Dashanami structure.
    • He composed numerous devotional and meditative hymns and authored key texts on Advaita Vedanta, including commentaries on major scriptures.
    • Adi Shankaracharya revitalized Hinduism at a time when it faced challenges from Jainism and Buddhism, promoting unity and re-establishing traditions.
    • He established four monastic institutions (Mathas) in different corners of India, unifying the nation and codifying leadership roles:
    1. Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetam in Chikmaglur in Karnataka
    2. Jyotir Matha in the Garhwal region in Uttarakhand
    3. Kalika Matha in Dwarka in Gujarat
    4. Govardhana Matha in Puri in Odisha