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Subject: International Relations

  • In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

    The US withdrawal from the JCPOA (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action) in 2018 and subsequent reimposition of sanctions, has heightened tensions in West Asia.

    Impact on India’s National Interests

    Energy Security

    Regional instability inflates global oil prices, aggravating India’s current account deficit and rupee depreciation.

    Connectivity Challenges

    US sanctions complicate financing and insurance for the Chabahar Port and INSTC– critical to India’s access to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Europe.

    India’s exports to Iran (pharmaceuticals, rice, machinery) face banking restrictions.

    Strategic and Diplomatic Dilemmas

    Challenge of maintaining strategic partnerships with both Washington and Tehran, while avoiding diplomatic friction.

    Security Concerns- Escalation in the Strait of Hormuz threatens India’s sea-borne energy supplies and security of Indian diaspora in the Gulf. Eg- Red sea crisis in 2024

    How India Should Respond

    Short-term Measures

    Energy Diversification- Strengthen long-term import contracts with Saudi Arabia, UAE, Russia, and the US, and expand strategic oil reserves.

    Protect Maritime Routes- Enhance naval surveillance in the Arabian Sea under SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region).

    Use rupee-rial trade mechanisms and alternate payment channels.

    Medium to Long-term Strategy

    Secure waivers for Chabahar Port and accelerate linkage with INSTC to strengthen access to Eurasia.

    Energy Transition- Fast-track investments in renewables, LNG, and green hydrogen.

    Regional Multilateralism- Promote India-GCC-Iran dialogue for maritime security and conflict de-escalation.

    Supporting IAEA-based diplomacy for restoring JCPOA through peaceful dialogue and achieving Nuclear disarmament.

    A balanced, multi-vector foreign policy is essential to safeguard India’s economic and security interests while sustaining its role as a stabilizing power in West Asia.

  • What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?

    The WTO, established in 1995 under Uruguay Round of the GATT, was designed to promote rules-based multilateral trade and ensure that global trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely.

    Major Challenges Facing the WTO

    Since 2019, WTO’s dispute settlement system has been defunct due to US blocking judge appointments.

    Deadlock over Doha Development Agenda and Agreement on Agriculture

    Opposition of developing countries for ‘New Issues’

    WTO rules lag behind in Digital Trade & E-commerce

    Dispute over “Developing Country” Status – The US opposes self-declared developing status at WTO, arguing that countries like India and China should be treated as developed.

    Mega-regional trade pacts like the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership), bypassing WTO norms.

    Proposals by India in the High-Level Mini-Ministerial Meeting

    Revival of the WTO Dispute Settlement System to maintain WTO’s credibility and rule-based order.

    Institutional & Negotiation Reforms

    Move from consensus-only decision-making to hybrid or majority-based models for efficiency.

    Enhance voice of developing nations in agenda-setting and committee representation

    Reform of Special and Differential Treatment – Retain S&DT as a core principle ensuring policy space for developing countries.

    Agricultural Trade Reform

    Rationalize domestic support and export subsidies in developed nations (EU, US).

    Permanent solutions for public food grain stockholding programs

    Ensure food security exemptions are protected under Article 18.4 of AoA.

    Tackling Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) by ensuring transparency, science-based standards, and non-discriminatory application of NTBs.

    Addressing Distortions by Non-Market Economies – Eg- China’s export quotas on rare earths

    Develop balanced rules on data localization, digital taxation, and cross-border flows to prevent dominance of Big Tech

    Prevent misuse of green trade barriers as disguised protectionism. Eg- EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

    Permanent WTO Reform Council to propose systemic reforms every five years.

    India must lead the Global South coalition to ensure reforms are inclusive, equitable, and development-centric.

  • A number of outside powers have entrenched themselves in Central Asia, which is a zone of interest to India. Discuss the implications, in this context, of India’s joining the Ashgabat Agreement, 2018.

    The region of Central Asia is located in the heart of Eurasia and denoted as Heartland by Helford Mackinder. It connects Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and Russia, and holds vast reserves of energy and minerals.

    Outside Powers Entrenched in Central Asia

    China- Through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and China-Central Asia-West Asia Corridor

    Russia through Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU).

    United States- involvement in Afghanistan

    India – through Bilateral relations and SCO. Eg- PM visited all 5 CA Republics

    Central Asia as a Zone of Interest to India

    Geopolitical – Area of Great Game.

    Energy Security- Central Asia possesses abundant oil, gas, and uranium reserves vital for India’s growing energy needs (e.g., TAPI gas pipeline).

    Connectivity and Trade- Provides a gateway to Eurasia and Europe, helping India bypass Pakistan. Eg- INSTC

    Strategic Balancing- counter China’s strategic dominance

    Cultural-Historical Linkages- Shared Silk Road heritage, Buddhism, and Sufi culture

    The Ashgabat Agreement is a multilateral transport and transit pact aimed at creating an International Transport and Transit Corridor (ITTC) between Central Asia and the Persian Gulf.

    Positive Implications of India’s Joining

    Enhanced Connectivity via the Persian Gulf and Iran’s Chabahar Port, complementing the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).

    Energy and Economic Integration- Opens efficient trade routes for energy imports, minerals, and agricultural goods.

    Reduces India’s dependence on traditional routes blocked by Pakistan; provides alternative trade corridors aligned with its “Connect Central Asia Policy.”

    Balancing China’s BRI and enhancing India’s geo-economic presence.

    Regional Cooperation- Deepens engagement with Iran, Oman, and Central Asian republics.

    Challenges

    Geopolitical Constraints- US sanctions on Iran threaten India’s ability to operationalize corridors through Chabahar and Iran-Turkmenistan routes.

    Security Instability- Afghanistan’s volatility disrupts regional connectivity and supply chains.

    China’s deep pocket diplomacy limits India’s economic space and bargaining power.

    India’s delivery Deficit – Eg- Delay in INSTC

    Compared to Russia and China, India’s economic and physical presence remains limited

    Agreement reinforces India’s “Connect Central Asia” and “Act West” policies.

  • India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss.

    India and Israel relations, though formally established only in 1992, have evolved from a transactional defense relationship into a multidimensional strategic partnership.

    Depth and Diversity in India-Israel relations

    Geopolitical Convergence

    2017 Modi visit to Israel (first ever by an Indian PM) and reciprocal visits institutionalized the partnership through Joint Working Groups and 2+2 dialogues.

    Strategic autonomy- India has successfully balanced ties with Israel, Palestine, and Gulf states

    Indo-Abrahamic Bloc- India’s participation in I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE, US), reflect shared Indo-Pacific interests.

    Defense and Security Cooperation

    Defense Procurement- Israel is one of India’s top three defense suppliers. Eg- Heron and Searcher UAVs, Barak missiles, and Spyder air defense systems.

    Counterterrorism Cooperation- Intelligence-sharing and joint training have strengthened India’s counterterrorism capabilities post-26/11.

    Maritime Security- Joint initiatives in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea strengthen India’s position in West Asian maritime architecture.

    Technology, Agriculture, and Water Cooperation

    The India-Israel Agricultural Project (IIAP) has established over 30 Centers of Excellence across Indian states.

    Water Management- Collaboration in drip irrigation, desalination, and wastewater recycling.

    The India-Israel Industrial R&D and Technological Innovation Fund (I4F) supports joint projects in AI, quantum computing, water tech, etc.

    Economic and Trade Relations

    Bilateral Trade- Increased from $200 million in 1992 to over $10.7 billion in 2023, with focus shifting from diamonds to pharmaceuticals, defense electronics, and agri-tech.

    Negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) to deepen commercial linkages.

    India and Israel have signed a fresh bilateral investment treaty.( first OECD country to adopt India’s new investment treaty model.)

    People-to-People and Cultural Ties – Shared democratic values, historical goodwill, and academic and cultural exchanges

    Major Areas-of Friction

    India maintains a principled support for Palestine and the two-state solution. Eg- India abstained from a UNGA resolution on Gaza ceasefire in October 2023.

    India walk a tightrope between its strategic embrace of Israel and economic entrenchment in the Gulf. – Harsh V. Pant (ORF)

    Non-defense trade remains modest and over-reliant on diamonds and agriculture.

    The India-Israel Free Trade Agreement, under negotiation since 2010 (14 rounds held), remains inconclusive.

    Domestic Political Issues – left-leaning and minority groups, criticize deepening ties with Israel.

    Way Forward

    Partnership based on Enlightened Self interest

    Joint Collaboration for development projects in Africa and South Asia under platforms like I2U2.

    As Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu stated, “The sky is the limit for India-Israel cooperation” – symbolizing deep mutual trust and strategic alignment.

  • “What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.

    Former US president Barack Obama called India-US relationship as the most defining partnership of the 21st century. However, in recent years there has been friction in ties due to geopolitical and geoeconomic divergence.

    Roots of Friction- Divergent Strategic Worldviews

    India’s Pursuit of Strategic Autonomy vs US Alliance Model – India’s “strategic hedging” with neutral stance on the Russia-Ukraine war (2022-24) frustrated the US. Eg- 50% Tariff

    USA’s relationship with Pakistan (recent mineral deal) weakens India’s efforts against Terrorism.

    Fear of USA’s policy of Bait and Bloodletting in India-China relations

    Gap between expectation and recognition – Eg- While the US promotes India as a “pillar of the Indo-Pacific strategy,” it doesn’t offer India the same status as treaty allies like Japan or Australia

    Divergence in Regional Priorities – India’s immediate concerns include China, Pakistan, and the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), whereas US priorities Pacific Ocean in QUAD.

    Geoeconomic Issues – US tightening H-1B visa policies or reinstate Generalized System of Preferences (GSP).

    U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021) and its aftermath posed regional security concerns for India

    Multilateralism issues – Eg- Disputes on data localization, intellectual property, and agricultural access under WTO

    US sanctions under CAATSA threatened S-400 missile system deal and Chabahar port in Iran

    Human Rights – US criticism of India’s domestic policies (e.g., on religious freedom, digital regulation, or Kashmir) is viewed by India as interference in internal affairs.

    India’s National Self-Esteem and Strategic Ambitions

    Strategic Autonomy and issue based partnerships based on enlightened self interest

    Recognition as an independent global power – Rightful Place in comity of nations.

    Permanent membership in the UN Security Council.

    Technology access and defense co-production as an equal partner.

    Leadership in Global South diplomacy.

    Efforts to Bridge the Gap

    India-US civil nuclear deal of 2008

    Initiatives on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) aim for joint R&D in AI, 5G, and quantum tech.

    GE-HAL jet engine co-production, semiconductor MoUs, and defense logistics agreements (LEMOA, COMCASA, BECA).

    Framework agreement to expand defence cooperation over the next 10-years.

    Way Forward

    Balance Strategic Autonomy with Global Cooperation on shared interests – counterterrorism, climate change, and technology governance.

    Engage more actively in the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF), promote supply chain resilience, and sustainable infrastructure partnerships.

    Prioritize co-production and joint R&D in advanced defense technologies such as cybersecurity, autonomous systems, and surveillance.

    A stronger India-US partnership anchored in mutual respect, collaboration, and global leadership can advance regional stability and multipolar global governance

  • “The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.

    The international system is shifting from the ‘unipolar’ and Western-led liberal order to a more ‘hybrid’, decentralised and polycentric system (‘multi-polar’ world order). In this context, India’s role has also transformed as an emerging global power.

    India’s Earlier Role as a Voice of the Marginalised

    The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) promoted strategic autonomy and South-South solidarity against superpower blocs.

    Economic Advocacy- At UNCTAD and G77, India pushed for a New International Economic Order (NIEO) to reform global trade and finance.

    Decolonisation- Eg- opposition to apartheid in South Africa

    Disarmament Diplomacy- Advocated global nuclear disarmament.

    WTO Diplomacy – Advocacy for Doha Agenda

    Shift in India’s Global Posture – Rise of Realpolitik

    Economic Liberalisation (1991)- Shift from Third World solidarity to global integration. Eg- recent FTA with UK

    Shift from Non-Alignment to Multi Alignment – Strategic Partnerships with US, Japan, France, and Israel based on Enlightened self interest.

    Membership in Quad, SCO, BRICS, and G20, signal pragmatic engagement beyond ideological blocs.

    Nuclear Tests (1998)- Assertion of national power replaced earlier moral idealism.

    Energy & Security Diplomacy- India’s West Asia, I2U2, and Indo-Pacific strategies reflect a realist pursuit of interests.

    Reduced Role in NAM– Eg- PM Modi skipping NAM Summit

    India’s Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific strategy align with global power equations and economic interests.

    Strategic Balancing- Maintaining relations with US (Quad), Russia (defence), and China (BRICS/SCO) reflects sophisticated multi-vector diplomacy.

    However, India Still Asserts Its Ethical Stance and Voice of the Global South

    South-South Cooperation- India extends Lines of Credit, ITEC training, and humanitarian aid to 160+ nations.

    Humanitarian diplomacy under Vaccine Maitri (2021)- Supplied vaccines to over 90 countries.

    Voice of Global South Summit (2023)- representing Global South concerns on debt, food, and digital inclusion.

    Climate Justice Advocacy- India’s stand for common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR).

    Digital Public Goods Diplomacy- Eg- promotion of India Stack and UPI models in Africa.

    Ethical Multilateralism- Eg- call for UNSC reform and rule-based global order, rooted in the civilisational ethos of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (“One Earth, One Family, One Future”).

    The world order today is in ‘flux’ (M. K. Narayanan). Issue based partnerships rather than alliances is the order of the day (S. Jaishankar)

  • ‘Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life.’ Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel bias’.

    UNESCO, established in 1945, promotes education, culture, heritage, and scientific cooperation as pillars of global peace.

    Context of US Withdrawal

    The United States withdrew from UNESCO in 2017, accusing it of anti-Israel bias.

    The trigger was UNESCO’s 2011 recognition of Palestine as a full member, and resolutions declaring East Jerusalem and Hebron as occupied Palestinian territories.

    The US described this as “politicization of culture”

    The US also objected to inefficient governance within the organization.

    It rejoined in 2023 but again withdrew in 2025 citing bias against Israel.

    Impact of the US Withdrawal

    Geopolitical Power Shift- Creates space for China’s greater influence within UNESCO.

    The US was UNESCO’s largest contributor (22% of its budget) – withdrawal caused program cuts.

    Cultural preservation, education, and global literacy programs suffered from lack of funds.

    Political polarization among members eroded UNESCO’s credibility and neutrality.

    Developing nations’ initiatives faced delays due to resource shortages.

    Highlights US unpredictability and undermines credibility of multilateral institutions

    Way Forward

    Depoliticize cultural resolutions and heritage conservation.

    Diversify funding sources to reduce reliance on a few donors.

    Strengthen transparency and consensus-based decision-making.

    Strengthen South-South and regional cooperation for promoting capacity-building in developing nations

    UNESCO’s revival requires inclusive governance and financial sustainability to rebuild global trust, credibility and address the ‘crisis of confidence’ in multilateralism.

  • ‘The time has come for India and Japan to build a strong contemporary relationship, one involving global and strategic partnership that will have a great significance for Asia and the world as a whole.’ Comment.

    Shinzo Abe in his book “Towards a beautiful nation” termed India as Japan’s natural ally as they have no conflict of strategic interest and share common goals to build a free and open Indo-Pacific.

    Reasons for strong India-Japan Relations

    Geopolitical – Cold war 2.0, G-2

    Geoeconomic – Weaponisation of supply chains by China, Trump’s Tariff Wars

    Defence and Security – China’s boiling frog strategy in Indo Pacific

    Connectivity – China’s debt trap diplomacy through BRI. Eg- Sri Lanka crisis

    Multilateralism – UNSC reforms (both are members of G-4)

    Building a Strong India-Japan Partnership for Stability in Asia

    Strengthen Strategic and Security Cooperation

    Institutionalize Indo-Pacific Defence Cooperation- Expand 2+2 ministerial dialogues, enhance joint military exercises (Malabar, JIMEX) and intelligence sharing.

    Maritime Security- Establish a Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) network in the Indian Ocean to ensure secure Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs).

    Regional Architecture- Coordinate policies within Quad, ASEAN, and East Asia Summit to promote regional security and crisis management.

    Deepen Economic and Connectivity Linkages

    Sustainable Infrastructure under the Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) as a transparent alternative to China’s BRI.

    Develop joint critical mineral and semiconductor supply chains under the Japan-India Industrial Competitiveness Partnership (IJICP).

    Energy and Technological Cooperation – Partner in hydrogen energy, solar manufacturing, and battery storage technologies to drive Asia’s clean transition.

    Soft Power and People-to-People Ties – Encourage joint humanitarian and disaster relief operations (HADR) to reinforce India-Japan goodwill across Asia.

    Building a Strong India-Japan Partnership for Stability in the World

    Promote a Rules-Based Global Order

    UN Reforms- Work jointly for UN Security Council reform

    Global Governance- Align efforts in WTO, IMF, and World Bank to make global institutions more representative and equitable.

    Global Economic Leadership

    Promote rule based economic order to counter weaponisation by trade by US and China

    Technology and Trade Norms- Co-develop standards in AI ethics, data protection, and digital economy governance.

    Climate Action- Jointly lead green finance mechanisms and global partnerships on carbon neutrality, leveraging Japan’s technology and India’s markets.

    Collaboration in Global Commons

    Maritime Freedom- Cooperate to safeguard open seas in the Western Pacific and Africa’s eastern coast.

    Space and Cyber Cooperation- Develop joint frameworks for space situational awareness and cybersecurity, ensuring safe use of global commons.

    As Prof. C. Raja Mohan notes, India and Japan can be “anchor democracies in the Indo-Pacific”, balancing China’s rise

  • ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)’ is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times – Discuss.

    The QUAD, comprising India, the USA, Japan, and Australia, was established in 2007 to ensure a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific. In the context of the rise of ‘assertive’ China, it has undergone a strategic evolution.

    QUAD Is Not a Formal Military Alliance

    No Mutual Defence Pact – Unlike NATO, QUAD lacks Article 5-type commitment.

    Strategic Autonomy emphasis – India, especially, avoids military alliances.

    Soft-Balancing Mechanism – Focuses on shaping behavior, not confrontation.

    Diverse focus areas – USA and Japan focused on Pacific whereas India’s focus is on IOR

    Official Denial of Military Intent- QUAD is not directed against any country, but for a free and open Indo-Pacific. (PM Modi)

    QUAD’s Shift from Military to Economic-Trade Focus

    Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI, 2021) to reduce dependence on China-centric supply chains. Eg- Semiconductor collaboration and clean energy supply chains.

    Critical and Emerging Technologies – EG- QUAD working groups on 5G/6G, AI, quantum computing, biotechnology, and cybersecurity seeks to ensure secure and transparent digital trade.

    Quad Critical Minerals Initiative to collaborate on securing and diversifying critical mineral supply chains.

    Partnership for Infrastructure (PFI) promotes high-quality, sustainable, and transparent infrastructure as an alternative to China’s BRI.

    Climate and Clean Energy Cooperation – QUAD Climate Working Group focuses on green shipping, renewable technologies, and disaster resilience.

    The QUAD Vaccine Partnership (2021) aimed to produce and distribute 1 billion COVID-19 vaccines across the Indo-Pacific.

    The Blue Dot Network (BDN),, certifies infrastructure projects that meet high standards of transparency, sustainability, and quality. Seen as a counterweight to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

    Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) led by Japan, to ensure freedom of navigation, connectivity, and economic prosperity.

    Strategic and Military cooperation

    Joint Naval Exercises enhancing maritime interoperability and situational awareness. Eg- Malabar Exercise

    Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) initiative (2022) – shares satellite data for maritime security and anti-piracy operations.

    “Quad-at-Sea Ship Observer Mission” for strengthening interoperability and knowledge-sharing to address unlawful maritime activities across the Indo-Pacific.

    Defence Technology Collaboration- Partnerships in defence manufacturing, undersea cables, and maritime surveillance technology.

    As pointed out by S. Jaishankar, “more focused Quad” will “help deliver better” and help realise rules-based international order

  • What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

    India’s defence partnerships have evolved in response to shifting geopolitical realities and regional security imperatives.

    Evolution of Defence Partnerships

    Indo-Russian Defence Ties- Based on Cold War-era cooperation, covering nuclear submarines, aircraft (Su-30MKI), and missile systems (S-400, BrahMos).

    Indo-US Defence Ties- Strengthened post-2005 with the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement, followed by defence foundational agreements – LEMOA (2016), COMCASA (2018), BECA (2020), and iCET (2023) – facilitating interoperability, logistics, and technology sharing.

    Significance of Indo-US Defence Deals over Indo-Russian Defence Deals in the Indo-Pacific Context

    Alignment with the Indo-Pacific Vision –

    shared commitment to a Free, Open, and Rules-Based Indo-Pacific (FOIP).

    Regional Presence- The US is a Pacific power with a direct military presence, unlike Russia, whose focus remains continental (Eurasian).

    The LEMOA (2016) enables reciprocal access to military bases – giving India strategic reach from Diego Garcia to Guam, enhancing maritime stability.

    Strengthening Maritime Security and Deterrence

    Operational Interoperability- Foundational agreements such as COMCASA (2018) and BECA (2020) enhance real-time intelligence and data sharing, critical for tracking Chinese naval movements.

    Joint Naval Exercises- India’s participation in the Quad-led Malabar exercises with the US, Japan, and Australia ensures freedom of navigation in the Indo-Pacific sea lanes.

    Indo-Russian defence engagements, like the BrahMos missile project and S-400 systems are less relevant to Indo-Pacific maritime operations.

    Access to Advanced Defence Technologies

    P-8I maritime patrol aircraft, Predator drones, and C-17 Globemasters that enhance India’s maritime strike capability.

    The iCET (Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies) deepens cooperation in AI, space, cybersecurity, and jet engine co-development, advancing India’s defence self-reliance.

    In contrast, Russian defence systems are based on legacy technologies, offering limited cooperation in next-generation warfare domains like cyber, space, and AI.

    Strategic Balance and Regional Stability

    The Indo-US defence partnership enhances collective deterrence in the Indo-Pacific, particularly in the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

    Through coordination under the Quad, India and the US promote capacity building, HADR (Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief), and infrastructure resilience.

    Deepening defence ties with the US diversifies India’s procurement base, reducing overdependence on Russian arms.

    Challenges in Strengthening Indo-US Defence Cooperation

    Strategic Autonomy Concerns as the US expects greater policy alignment (e.g., on Ukraine, Iran sanctions).

    Dependence on Russian Systems – Over 60% of India’s defence inventory still originates from Russia (Su-30s, MiGs, T-90s, submarines). Shifts to US-origin platforms face interoperability and logistics challenges.

    Technology Transfer and Cost Issues – US defence exports involve limited technology transfer and high costs compared to Russia’s Make-in-India-friendly models (e.g., BrahMos).

    The CAATSA sanctions threat over India’s S-400 purchase exemplifies friction points that could impact future defence cooperation.

    Bureaucratic Constraints – Differences in procurement procedures, licensing regimes, and IPR frameworks often delay joint projects and technology-sharing initiatives.

    Way Forward

    Establish a “Defence Innovation Corridor” linking Indian and US industries to promote Make in India-Make for the World defence production.

    Enhance Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) and Naval Interoperability with Quad partners through Malabar, Tiger Triumph Exercises.

    Strengthen the Defence Industrial Base – Facilitate US defence manufacturers to establish production and maintenance hubs in India for regional supply chain security.

    Maintain Strategic Autonomy with issue-based convergence rather than alignment

    Use strategic dialogue platforms (2+2 Ministerial, DTTI, Quad) to address divergences

    The Indo-US defence partnership is vital for ensuring a free, open, and stable Indo-Pacific. It must be driven by trust, technology, and transparency.