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Subject: Science and Technology

  • CRISPR Cas9 Gene Therapy for Sickle Cell Disease

    Why in the News?

    • India is close to developing a gene therapy using CRISPR-Cas9, a gene-editing tool for sickle cell disease (SCD).
      • SCD is a genetic blood disorder prevalent among the Scheduled Tribes.

    What is Sickle Cell Disease?

    • Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited blood disorders caused by a genetic mutation in the hemoglobin-β gene located on chromosome 11.
    • This mutation results in defective hemoglobin, which forms rod-like structures after releasing oxygen.
    • As a result, red blood cells become rigid and assume a sickle shape.
    • The disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, meaning both parents must carry the abnormal gene for a child to inherit it.
    • Symptoms may not manifest immediately in newborns but can include extreme tiredness, fussiness, swollen hands and feet, and jaundice.
    • Implications:
        • The mis-shapen RBCs can block small blood vessels, leading to impaired blood flow and causing chronic anaemia.
        • Individuals with SCD often experience acute pain episodes, severe bacterial infections, and tissue damage due to inadequate blood supply.
    • Treatment:
      • Presently treatment includes medications for pain relief, regular blood transfusions to replace damaged red blood cells.
      • In rare cases, a bone marrow or stem cell transplant, which carries significant risks, is recommended.

    Eliminating Sickle Cell Disease: Global and National Context

    • This progress follows the approval of CRISPR-Cas9 technology by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for a cell-based gene therapy to treat sickle cell disease in December 2023.
    • One of the main challenges for India is to develop a cost-effective therapy, as part of its mission to eradicate sickle cell disease by 2047, launched by Prime Minister in July 2023.
    • The mission aims to conduct over 7 crore screenings among vulnerable tribal populations across 17 States and Union Territories, with three crore screenings completed so far.

    Back2Basics: CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing

    • CRISPR-Cas9 stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.
    • It is a technology that allows geneticists and researchers to edit parts of the genome by altering sections of the DNA sequence.
    • Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna’s work on CRISPR-Cas9 as a ‘molecular scissor’ earned them the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
    • The system consists of two key components:
    1. Cas9: This is the enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors. It is responsible for cutting the DNA strand at a specific location, allowing for the removal, addition, or alteration of DNA at that site.
    2. Guide RNA (gRNA): This is a piece of RNA that is designed to find and bind to a specific sequence of DNA that matches its code. The gRNA guides the Cas9 enzyme to the exact spot in the genome where an edit is desired.
    • Mechanism:
      • The process begins with the design of a gRNA that matches the DNA sequence where an edit is needed.
      • Once inside the cell, the Cas9 enzyme and the gRNA form a complex that can identify and bind to the target DNA sequence.
      • The Cas9 then cuts the DNA at this location.
      • After the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms can be harnessed to add or remove genetic material, or to make specific changes to the DNA.

     

    PYQ:

    [2023] Consider the following statements in the context interventions being undertaken under Anaemin Mukt Bharat Strategy :

    1. It provides prophylactic calcium supplementation for pre-school children, adolescents and pregnant women.
    2. It runs a campaign for delayed cord clamping at the time of child-birth.
    3. It provides for periodic deworming to children and adolescents.
    4. It addresses non-nutritional causes of anaemia in endemic pockets with special focus on malaria, hemoglobinopathies and fluorosis.

    How many of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) Only one
    (b) Only two
    (c) Only three
    (d) All four

  • How will AlphaFold 3 change life sciences research?

    Why in the News?

    AlphaFold 3, and AI System introduced in a May 2024 Nature paper, extends capabilities to predict protein-protein interactions, DNA, RNA structures, and their interactions.

    Importance of Proteins

    • Proteins are crucial molecules regulating nearly every biological function.
    • They are composed of amino acids, which determine their structure and function.
    • Understanding protein folding is essential for comprehending cellular and organismal functions.

    The Protein-Folding Problem

    • The process of protein folding is complex and not fully understood, known as the protein-folding problem.
    • It is vital for deciphering how cells, organisms, and life itself operate.
    • Frank Uhlmann emphasizes the significance of understanding protein structure for molecular biology.

    What is AlphaFold?

    • Google DeepMind’s AlphaFold debuted in 2020, employs AI and machine learning to predict protein structures.
    • AlphaFold 2, released in 2021, significantly improved accuracy in protein structure prediction.
    • Derek Lowe acknowledges AlphaFold’s achievement in predicting structures effectively, although the deeper biological principles remain less explored.
    • AlphaFold 3’s Advancements:
      • It democratizes research by offering accessible structure prediction tools, even for non-experts.

    Technology behind AlphaFold 3

    • Unlike its predecessors, AlphaFold 3 utilizes a diffusion model akin to image-generating software.
    • This approach involves training on noisy data and de-noising to predict accurate protein structures.
    • Working:
      • Given an input list of molecules, AlphaFold 3 generates their joint 3D structure, revealing how they all fit together.
      • It models large biomolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as small molecules, also known as ligands — a category encompassing many drugs.

    Applications of AlphaFold 3

    • AlphaFold 3 excels in predicting protein structures and interactions, aiding drug discovery efforts.
    • DeepMind’s spin-off, Isomorphic Labs, utilizes AlphaFold 3 for drug candidate identification.

    Challenges

    • The model’s code restriction has sparked criticism among researchers for hindering scientific collaboration and transparency.
    • DeepMind initially withheld AlphaFold 3’s full code, prompting calls for open access from the scientific community.
    • Responding to backlash, DeepMind plans to release the complete code within six months.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?

    1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
    2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
    3. Disease diagnosis
    4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
    5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 2, 4 and 5 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • Does H5N1 pose a threat for humans? | Explained

    Why in the news?

    The highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1’s spread to cattle and first human cases in U.S. dairy workers heighten fears of wider human transmission.

    Can the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 strain spread from cattle to humans?

    • Recent Infections: Three cases of human infection in dairy farm workers were reported in the U.S., indicating the potential for the virus to spread from cattle to humans.
    • Transmission: The virus appears to spread to humans who are in close interaction with infected birds or animals without adequate personal protection.
    • Current Risk Level: Scientists note that the virus currently lacks changes that would make it better adapted to human-to-human transmission, keeping the risk to human health low. However, the potential for the virus to rapidly evolve remains a concern.

    What is the strategy to identify and contain the spread of the virus?

    • Surveillance in Kerala: Kerala has implemented a community-based disease surveillance network involving 2.5 lakh volunteers trained in the ‘One Health’ concept across four districts: Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kottayam, and Idukki.
    • Early Warning System: These volunteers report any unusual events or deaths of animals/birds in their locality, allowing for early warning and prompt preventive or control measures.
    • Global Coordination: There is a call for a robust and coordinated response to H5N1, as emphasized in a recent editorial by The Lancet.

    What is the concept of ‘One Health’ 

    • ‘One Health’ Concept: ‘One Health’ is an approach that recognizes the interconnection between people, animals, plants, and their shared environment, emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts across different sectors to achieve optimal health outcomes.

    How is Kerala using it to limit the spread of avian influenza?

    • Implementation of the ‘One Health’ concept in Kerala: Kerala has operationalized the ‘One Health’ concept through the World Bank-aided ‘Rebuild Kerala’ project. This involves a community-based disease surveillance network where volunteers are trained to monitor and report on animal and bird health, ensuring early detection and response to potential outbreaks.
    • Other Operational Measures: The state has taken proactive steps beyond the conceptual framework of ‘One Health’ by establishing an on-ground, volunteer-driven network for disease monitoring and control.

    Way forward:

    • Strengthen Global Surveillance and Collaboration: Enhance international cooperation for surveillance, data sharing, and rapid response mechanisms to monitor and control the spread of H5N1, leveraging the ‘One Health’ approach for coordinated action across human, animal, and environmental health sectors.
    • Implement Rigorous Biosecurity and Safety Protocols: Ensure strict biosecurity measures and personal protective equipment (PPE) for workers in close contact with animals, particularly in high-risk areas, to prevent zoonotic transmission and reduce the potential for human infections.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q The public health system has limitations in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that the private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • Valentina Tereshkova: The First Woman in Space

    Why in the News?

    On June 16, 1963, Valentina Tereshkova made history as the first woman to venture into space. Her achievement marked a significant milestone in the Space Race between the USA and the USSR during the Cold War.

    About Valentina Tereshkova’s Space Journey

    • In 1962, Tereshkova was selected among five women for the Soviet space program, aiming to achieve ‘gender equality’ in space exploration.
    • The USSR’s decision to send a woman into space was partly influenced by the success of Yuri Gagarin’s mission in 1961 and the desire to surpass the US in space achievements.
    • Tereshkova’s affiliation with the Communist Party and her skills as a parachutist were factors in her selection for the Vostok 6 mission.

    The Mission – Vostok 6

    • On June 16, 1963, Tereshkova piloted Vostok 6, becoming the first woman to orbit the Earth.
    • She spent 71 hours in space, completing 48 orbits around the Earth during her mission.

    Impact and Legacy

    • Tereshkova’s mission boosted Soviet prestige in the Space Race, following earlier successes like launching Sputnik-1 in 1957 and Yuri Gagarin’s historic flight in 1961.
    • Despite her pioneering role, the USA would later achieve milestones like the Apollo moon landings, surpassing Soviet achievements in manned space missions.
    • Tereshkova continued to advocate for women’s participation in space exploration and held prominent positions in Soviet politics and the Air Force.

    Indian Women in Space 

    Indian women have made significant contributions to space exploration, marking milestones and inspiring future generations. Here are notable Indian women who have ventured into space:

    • Kalpana Chawla: Born in Karnal, Haryana, Kalpana Chawla was the first woman of Indian origin in space. She flew on two Space Shuttle missions, including STS-87 in 1997. Tragically, she lost her life during the re-entry of the Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003.
    • Sunita Williams: An American astronaut of Indian-Slovenian descent, Sunita Williams has set records for spacewalks and served as a flight engineer on the International Space Station (ISS). She has logged over 322 days in space across multiple missions.
    • Sirisha Bandla: An aeronautical engineer and Vice President at Virgin Galactic, Sirisha Bandla became the second India-born woman to travel to space on the Virgin Galactic Unity 22 mission in 2021.

    Women Pioneers of ISRO:

    • Lalitha Ramachandran: Joined ISRO in 1969 as a technical assistant at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), becoming one of the first female chemical engineers recruited by ISRO. She retired as associate project director of the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project.
    • J Geetha: Joined ISRO in 1972 after working at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. She reminisces about the challenges of data gathering in the pre-internet era and the mentorship she received from stalwarts like Satish Dhawan and Vasant R Gowarikar.
    • Radhika Ramachandran: Joined ISRO in 1984 and served in various roles, including technical liaison officer at ISRO’s New Delhi office and director of the Space Physics Laboratory. She highlights the merit-based culture and the support for open discussions and suggestions.
    • T S Ramadevi: Joined ISRO in 1970 after completing her BTech from CET, Thiruvananthapuram. She was part of the communications unit and contributed to the growth of ISRO’s transmission technologies. She retired as deputy director of management systems.
    • Athula Devi: Joined ISRO in 1987 and retired in January, having been part of the team that developed base software systems for the Gaganyaan launch. She emphasizes ISRO’s growth through failures and the team’s dedication to projects above personal recognition.

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions. What are the main obstacles to launching a manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Examine critically. (10)

  • Quantum Physics Behind Diapers: How they absorb so much Liquid?

    Why in the News?

    Understanding the absorbency of diapers through the Quantum physics of water absorption and contrasting materials that do or do not absorb water.

    Absorption in Diapers: How it works?

    • Absorption depends on Microscopic forces and Material properties. Water molecules are attracted to materials like cotton due to their structure.
    • Cotton, a network of polymers with ions, absorbs water effectively by attracting water molecules.
    • For large fluid absorption like in diapers, Super-Absorbent Polymers (SAP) are crucial.

    What are Super-Absorbent Polymers (SAP)?

    • SAPs are synthetic materials with the ability to absorb and retain large amounts of liquid relative to their own mass.
    • They are commonly used in products like diapers, sanitary napkins, and other absorbent hygiene products.
    • SAPs are typically cross-linked polymers, meaning their molecules are bonded in a way that creates a network capable of absorbing water molecules.

    Examples:

    1. Sodium Polyacrylate: This is one of the most common types of SAP used in diapers. It forms a gel-like substance when it absorbs liquid.
    2. Polyacrylamide: Another type of SAP used in various applications, including agriculture and wastewater treatment, due to its high water-absorbing capacity.

    Quantum Physics Insight of SAP

    Quantum physics plays a fundamental role in understanding the behaviour of super-absorbent polymers (SAPs), particularly in how they interact with water molecules at the atomic level:

    1. Electron Sharing: SAPs contain ions like sodium, which have a strong affinity for water molecules. This attraction is based on the principles of quantum physics, where atoms like sodium and oxygen prefer to share electrons to achieve stability. This shared electron arrangement allows water molecules to bond with the ions in SAPs, facilitating the absorption process.
    2. Quantum Mechanical Properties: At the quantum level, electrons behave as waves and can exist in shared states between atoms. This phenomenon allows for the formation of stable bonds between water molecules and SAP ions, enhancing the SAP’s ability to absorb large amounts of liquid.
    3. Energy States: Quantum physics explains how SAPs manage energy states during absorption. As water enters the SAP, energy is released due to changes in the electron configurations and bonding energies of the ions involved. This process is crucial for maintaining the gel-like structure of the SAP and preventing leakage.

    PYQ:

    [2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services

    (b) Quantum Computing

    (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies

    (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

  • What is an Electromagnet?

    PC: The Hindu

    Why in the News?

    Recently Scientists have designed a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner that costs a fraction of existing machines, setting the stage for improving access to this widely used diagnostic tool. So we need to know about the Electromagnet.

    What is an Electromagnet?

    • Invented in 1824 by William Sturgeon, electromagnets revolutionised technology.
    • Sturgeon was an English physicist and inventor who discovered that wrapping a coil of wire around a piece of iron and passing an electric current through the wire produced a magnetic field.
    • Electromagnets are used in Loudspeakers for sound reproduction, Motors for mechanical movement., and MRI machines for medical imaging, etc

    How Electromagnets Work?

    • Electric current flowing through a wire generates a magnetic field around the wire.
    • Coiling the wire enhances this magnetic field by concentrating it within the coil’s core.
    • This configuration creates an electromagnet, where the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil.
    • The magnetic flux density so generated is measured in ‘Tesla’.

    Enhancing Magnetic Strength with a Core

    • Coiling the wire around a magnetic material (core), such as iron or steel:
      • Amplifies the magnetic field produced by the electric current.
      • Ferromagnetic materials like iron align their internal magnetic domains with the external magnetic field generated by the coil.
      • This alignment significantly increases the overall magnetic strength of the electromagnet compared to a non-magnetic core.

    Persistence of Magnetization

    • It refers to the property of a material to retain a certain amount of magnetization even after the removal of an external magnetic field.
    • Certain core materials exhibit retained magnetization even after the current ceases.
    • This residual magnetism is useful in applications requiring sustained magnetic fields, such as:
      • Superconducting electromagnets used in MRI machines, are capable of producing magnetic fields up to 30 Tesla.
      • Research electromagnets like those used in particle physics, which require stable and powerful magnetic fields.

    Who was Michael Faraday (1791-1867)?

    • Michael Faraday was a pioneering English scientist and physicist who made substantial contributions to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
    • Faraday is best known for his experiments and discoveries in electromagnetism, which laid the groundwork for the principles of electromagnetic induction and the laws of electrolysis.

    Key achievements of Michael Faraday include:

    1. Electromagnetic Induction: He discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831, showing that a changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a nearby conductor.
    2. Electrochemistry: Faraday formulated the laws of electrolysis, which describe the quantitative relationship between the amount of material produced or consumed during electrolysis and the amount of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
    3. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: These laws describe the fundamental principles of generating electricity using magnetic fields, forming the basis for the development of electric generators and transformers.
    4. Faraday Cage: He invented the Faraday cage, a device used to block electromagnetic fields.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?

    1. They use living organisms as catalysts to generate electricity from certain substrates.
    2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
    3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Kavli Prize, 2024 Announced

    Why in the News? 

    The winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize were announced, recognising achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.

    About Kavli Prize

    • The Kavli Prize celebrates outstanding achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
    • It is established in honour of Norwegian-American businessman and philanthropist Fred Kavli (1927-2013).
    • Awarded biennially, the prize recognizes researchers whose work pushes the boundaries of human knowledge and enhances our understanding of the universe, the brain, and nanoscale phenomena.

    About Fred Kavli

    • Fred Kavli, born in Erejsford, Norway, immigrated to California in 1956 and quickly made a mark in the engineering field.
    • His entrepreneurial journey began in 1958 with the founding of Kavlico, a pioneering company known for its precision pressure sensors used across diverse industries, from aviation to consumer electronics.

    The Kavli Foundation:

    • In 2000, after selling Kavlico for $340 million, Fred Kavli established the Kavli Foundation.
    • This philanthropic organisation supports fundamental research aimed at improving global quality of life.
    • The foundation operates 20 institutes worldwide dedicated to astrophysics, neuroscience, nanoscience, and theoretical physics.

    Prize Structure and Prestige:

    1. Comparison with Nobel Prize: The Kavli Prize mirrors the Nobel Prize in its prestige and international recognition but differs by not limiting awards to achievements within the preceding year, allowing broader scope and longevity in selection criteria.
    2. Award Ceremony: Each Kavli Prize includes a $1 million cash award per field, a scroll, and a 7 cm diameter medal. The ceremony, held at the Oslo Concert Hall and attended by global scientific leaders, features a red-carpet event, emphasizing its significance in the scientific community.
    3. Selection Process:
    • Committees: Three international committees nominate and review candidates, providing a unanimous recommendation to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
    • Nominees: Nominees come from prestigious institutions worldwide, ensuring a diverse and comprehensive evaluation process.

    Winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize:

    Field Winners Contributions
    Astrophysics David Charbonneau (Harvard University), Sara Seager (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Pioneering methods for detecting atomic species in planetary atmospheres and measuring their thermal infrared emission, are crucial for identifying molecular fingerprints in atmospheres of exoplanets.
    Nanoscience Robert Langer (MIT), Armand Paul Alivisatos (University of Chicago), Chad Mirkin (Northwestern University) Langer: Nano-engineering for controlled drug delivery systems.

    Alivisatos: Development of semiconductor quantum dots for bio-imaging.

    Mirkin: Concept of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) for applications in gene regulation and immunotherapy.
    Neuroscience Nancy Kanwisher (MIT), Winrich Freiwald (Rockefeller University), Doris Tsao (University of California, Berkeley) Mapping brain functions related to facial recognition using neuroimaging and neuronal recording techniques, identifying brain centers and neural architectures involved in face processing.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?

    [2018] Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics.

    [2008] Nobel Prize-winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (2008)

    (a) Metallurgy

    (b) Meteorology

    (c) Environmental protection

    (d) Genetics

  • Longitude Prize on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

    Why in the News?

    Sysmex Astrego, a Sweden-based diagnostic company, won the £10 million Longitude Prize for developing a high-tech UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) test called the PA-100 AST System. 

    What is Antimicrobial Resistance?

    • Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change so that medicines no longer work against them.
    • This makes infections harder to treat and can lead to more severe illness and even death.
    • AMR can occur naturally through genetic changes or when one type of microorganism picks up resistance from another.
    • It can also occur randomly due to mutations or when resistant genes spread between different organisms.
    • The main reasons for AMR are antibiotics incorrectly or too often, not having access to clean water and good hygiene, not doing enough to prevent infections, and people not knowing how to use antibiotics properly.

    Global Impact of AMR

    • Global Threat: Antibiotic-resistant infections caused nearly 1.3 million deaths in 2019, with projections to exceed cancer-related deaths by 2050.
    • Economic Impact: The global economy faces potential losses of up to 4 trillion by 2030 and 100 trillion by 2050 due to the AMR crisis.

    About the Longitude Prize

    • The Longitude Prize, valued at £8 million (₹85 crore), was recently awarded for its profound implications in combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
    • The prize launched in 2014, aims to revolutionize infection management globally.
    • Historical Context:  
      • Origins: Established in 1714 to solve the maritime longitude problem, demonstrating the critical need for accurate navigation.
      • Modern Application: The 21st-century Longitude Prize addresses pressing global challenges like AMR, incentivizing innovative solutions.
    • Goal of the Prize:
      •  Aims to replace current lab-based diagnostic methods with rapid tests that guide targeted antibiotic therapies, combating AMR effectively.

    About PA-100 AST System 

    • Technology Breakthrough: Developed by Sysmex Astrego, this system uses a phenotypic test that identifies UTI bacteria and performs antibiotic susceptibility testing in under 45 minutes.
    • Operation: A single-use cartridge processes less than half a milliliter of urine, using microfluidic traps and phase-contrast imaging in a shoe box-sized reader instrument.
    • Clinical Impact: Provides rapid “sensitive” or “resistant” results for antibiotics, aiding doctors in immediate, accurate treatment decisions at the point of care.

    Current Challenges in UTI Diagnosis

    • Limited Accuracy: Current options include urine dipstick tests for quick results but limited accuracy (50-60%) and lab cultures with 2-3 day turnaround times.
    • Impact on Treatment: Delayed diagnosis often leads to empirical antibiotic use, contributing to antibiotic resistance worldwide.

    Significance for India

    • Healthcare Burden: In India, millions seek treatment for UTIs annually, impacting lives and healthcare systems significantly.
    • Potential: Rapid, accurate point-of-care tests could revolutionize UTI management globally, saving lives and reducing healthcare costs.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without a Doctor’s prescription be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

    [2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?

    1. Genetic predisposition of some people
    2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
    3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming
    4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a) 1 and 2
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1, 3 and 4
    (d) 2, 3 and 4

  • Scientists back new Alzheimer’s drug: Benefits vs Risks

    Why in the News?

    Donanemab, a new Alzheimer’s disease therapy developed by Eli Lilly, has gained unanimous support from independent scientists advising the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), moving it closer to clinical use.

    What is Donanemab?

    • Donanemab is a monoclonal antibody, which means it is a laboratory-produced molecule designed to function like antibodies in the immune system.
    • It is specifically developed for individuals in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, including those with mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia.

    How Does Donanemab Work?

    • It targets amyloid beta proteins in the brain. Amyloid beta plaques are one of the defining features of Alzheimer’s disease.
    • Mechanism of Action: The drug binds to amyloid beta plaques and promotes their removal from the brain. This action is intended to slow down the progression of Alzheimer’s disease by reducing the accumulation of these toxic plaques.

    How do the benefits of the drug stack up against its risks?

    • Target Population: The drug is intended for those in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease (mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia).
    • Benefits: Significant clinically meaningful slowing of the disease, allowing patients to retain their functions for a longer time. Phase 3 study shows a 35.1% slowdown in cognitive decline in early Alzheimer’s patients over 76 weeks.
    • Risks: Main adverse effects include brain swelling (24%) and brain bleeds (19.7%), with most cases being asymptomatic.Three treatment-related deaths reported.Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) like brain bleeds and seizures were mostly non-serious and resolved after discontinuation of therapy.
    • Risk Management: The key risks can be mitigated through appropriate labeling and clinical monitoring. Further risks will be characterized through post-authorization studies.

    Why is a breakthrough of this kind important?

    • Rising Burden of Alzheimer’s: The global population is ageing, leading to an increased burden of diseases like Alzheimer’s. In India, 5.3 million people are currently living with dementia, expected to rise to 14 million by 2050.
    • Lack of Effective Treatments: There are limited options for disease-modifying treatments for Alzheimer’s. Innovations like donanemab are crucial for providing new hope and potential therapies.
    • Economic Considerations: While the drug is expensive, it offers the potential for several more years of quality life for patients.

    Why was the approval for the drug delayed?

    • Additional Data Requirements: The USFDA wanted to understand further the data relating to the therapy, especially regarding the limited dosing protocol used during trials.
    • Limited Dosing Protocol: During the trial, therapy was stopped in patients who achieved a certain level of amyloid beta plaque clearance, which is a distinguishing feature of donanemab compared to other therapies.
    • Previous Drug Approval Irregularities: Scrutiny increased after irregularities were found in the approval process of the first drug, aducanumab, which involved close collaboration between the regulator and the drugmaker and approval despite negative trial outcomes. The second drug, lecanemab, also had cautious optimism from doctors due to its demonstrated efficacy with fewer side effects.

    Conclusion: Ensure rigorous and transparent review processes for new Alzheimer’s treatments, incorporating comprehensive data analysis and post-authorization studies to monitor long-term safety and efficacy.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments? (UPSC IAS/2017)

  • Lal Crater on Mars

    Why in the News?

    Back2Basics: International Astronomical Union (IAU)

    • The IAU was founded on July 28, 1919, during the Constitutive Assembly held in Brussels, Belgium.
    • Its creation was prompted by the need for international collaboration in astronomy, especially after the devastation caused by World War I.
    • It aims to promote and safeguard astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation.
    • IAU is now headquartered in Paris, France.

    Major Activities and Initiatives

    • General Assembly: The IAU holds a general assembly every three years in varying parts of the world at which professional astronomers meet to discuss research, new cooperative ventures, and similar matters of professional interest.
    • Astronomical Nomenclature: IAU standardises the nomenclature of celestial bodies, features, and phenomena. It maintains several working groups dedicated to naming conventions for stars, planets, asteroids, and other objects.
    • Research and Collaboration: It promotes international cooperation in astronomical research and supports initiatives such as observational campaigns, data sharing, and joint projects.
    • Education and Outreach: It is actively involved in promoting astronomy education and public outreach efforts worldwide. It supports educational programs, workshops, and resources for students, teachers, and the general public.

    Membership

    1. IAU membership spans 92 countries. Out of those countries, 85 are National Members.
    2. India is represented by the Astronomical Society of India (ASI).
    3. Its members are professional astronomers from all over the world, at the D. level and beyond, who are active in professional research, education, and outreach in astronomy.

    Crater Names and Significance

    • Lal Crater: Named after Prof. Devendra Lal, former director of PRL, this 65 km wide crater is positioned at -20.98° and 209.34°.
    • Mursan Crater: Named after a town in Uttar Pradesh, India, this ~10 km wide crater is situated on the eastern side of the Lal crater’s rim.
    • Hilsa Crater: Named after a town in Bihar, India, this ~10 km wide crater is positioned on the western side of the Lal crater’s rim.

    Scientific Importance of Lal Crater

    • Lava Coverage: The entire Lal crater area, located in the Tharsis volcanic region on Mars, is covered with lava.
    • Evidence of Water: Geophysical evidence, including a 45-meter thick sedimentary deposit, suggests the presence of water in the subsurface of the Lal crater. This finding supports the theory that Mars once had water flowing on its surface.
    • Infilling Process: Mursan and Hilsa craters, positioned on either side of the Lal crater, offer insights into the infilling process of the Lal crater. Their presence indicates that infilling occurred episodically over time.

    India’s 2nd Quest for Mars

    • The ISRO is expected to launch Mangalyaan-2, or Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM 2), in 2025.
    • The mission will last one year and is aimed at studying the Red Planet.
    • The successor to Mangalyaan-1, or Mars Orbiter Mission 1 (MOM 1), Mangalyaan-2 will consist of only one orbiter and will be launched atop a GSLV Mark III rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.

    Other missions to Mars

    • ExoMars rover (2022): European Space Agency’s mission to explore Mars.
    • Tianwen-1 (2021): China’s Mars Mission aims to explore and study the Martian surface.
    • UAE’s Hope Mars Mission (2021): UAE’s first interplanetary mission focused on studying the Martian atmosphere.
    • NASA’s Mars Insight (2018): A lander designed to study the interior of Mars.
    • NASA’s Curiosity (2012) and Perseverance (2020): Rovers exploring the Martian surface.
    • NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2005), Mars Odyssey (2001), and MAVEN (2013): Orbiters studying Mars from space.
    • Mars 2 and Mars 3 (1971): Soviet Union’s missions to Mars, which included orbiter and lander components.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

    1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
    2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
    3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3