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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Punjab bans use of 10 insecticides

    Amid reports that several samples of basmati rice contained the residue of certain pesticides above the maximum residue level (MRL), the Punjab government has decided to ban the use of 10 formulations.

    Which are the chemicals banned?

    • The State government believed that the sale, stock distribution, and use of Acephate, Buprofezin, Chloropyriphos, Methamidophos, Propiconazole, Thiamethoxam, Profenofos, Isoprothiolane, Carbendazim, and Tricyclazole was not in the interest of basmati rice growers.
    • It is said that there is a risk of breaching the MRL fixed by the competent authority for basmati rice.

    What is the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL)?

    • MRL is the highest level of pesticide residue that is legally tolerated in or on food or feed when pesticides are applied correctly in accordance with Good Agricultural Practice promulgated by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
    • The MRL is usually determined by repeated (on the order of 10) field trials at an appropriate pre-harvest interval or withholding period has elapsed.
    • For many pesticides, this is set at the Limit of determination (LOD) – since only major pesticides have been evaluated and understanding of acceptable daily intake (ADI) is incomplete.

     

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  • What is Langya Virus?

    A new virus, Langya henipavirus, is suspected to have caused infections in 35 people in China’s Shandong and Henan provinces over roughly a two-year period to 2021.

    Langya Virus

    • It’s related to Hendra and Nipah viruses, which cause disease in humans.
    • However, there’s much we don’t know about the new virus – known as LayV for short – including whether it spreads from human to human.

    How sick are people getting?

    • Symptoms reported appeared to be mostly mild – fever, fatigue, cough, loss of appetite, muscle aches, nausea and headache – although we don’t know how long the patients were unwell.
    • A smaller proportion had potentially more serious complications, including pneumonia, and abnormalities in liver and kidney function.
    • However, the severity of these abnormalities, the need for hospitalization, and whether any cases were fatal were not reported.

    Where did this virus come from?

    • The authors also investigated whether domestic or wild animals may have been the source of the virus.
    • Although they found a small number of goats and dogs that may have been infected with the virus in the past, there was more direct evidence a significant proportion of wild shrews were harbouring the virus.
    • This suggests humans may have caught the virus from wild shrews.

    Does this virus actually cause this disease?

    • The researchers used a modern technique known as metagenomic analysis to find this new virus.
    • Researchers sequence all genetic material then discard the “known” sequences (for example, human DNA) to look for “unknown” sequences that might represent a new virus.
    • This raises the question about how scientists can tell whether a particular virus causes the disease.
    • Researchers used “Koch’s Postulates” to determine whether a particular micro-organism causes disease:
    1. it must be found in people with the disease and not in well people
    2. it must be able to be isolated from people with the disease
    3. the isolate from people with the disease must cause the disease if given to a healthy person (or animal)
    4. it must be able to be re-isolated from the healthy person after they become ill.

    What can we learn from related viruses?

    • This new virus appears to be a close cousin of two other viruses that are significant in humans: Nipah virus and Hendra virus.
    • This family of viruses was the inspiration for the fictional MEV-1 virus in the film Contagion.
    • Hendra virus was first reported in Queensland in 1994, when it caused the deaths of 14 horses and the trainer Vic Rail.
    • Nipah virus is more significant globally, with outbreaks frequently reported in Bangladesh.

    What lies ahead?

    • Little is known about this new virus, and the currently reported cases are likely to be the tip of the iceberg.
    • At this stage, there is no indication the virus can spread from human to human.
    • Further work is required to determine how severe the infection can be, how it spreads, and how widespread it might be in China and the region.

     

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  • Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) launched into wrong Orbit

    The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has said that the satellite onboard its’ maiden Small Satellite Launch Vehicle “are no longer usable” after the SSLV-D1 placed them in an elliptical orbit instead of a circular one.

    What is SSLV?

    • The SSLV is a small-lift launch vehicle being developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to deliver:
    1. 600 kg to Low Earth Orbit (500 km) or
    2. 300 kg to Sun-synchronous Orbit (500 km)
    • It would help launching small satellites, with the capability to support multiple orbital drop-offs.
    • In future a dedicated launch pad in Sriharikota called Small Satellite Launch Complex (SSLC) will be set up.
    • A new spaceport, under development, near Kulasekharapatnam in Tamil Nadu will handle SSLV launches when complete.
    • After entering the operational phase, the vehicle’s production and launch operations will be done by a consortium of Indian firms along with NewSpace India Limited (NSIL).

    Vehicle details

    (A) Dimensions

    • Height: 34 meters
    • Diameter: 2 meters
    • Mass: 120 tonnes

    (B) Propulsion

    • It will be a four stage launching vehicle.
    • The first three stages will use Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) based solid propellant, with a fourth terminal stage being a Velocity-Trimming Module (VTM).

    SSLV vs. PSLV: A comparison

    • The SSLV was developed with the aim of launching small satellites commercially at drastically reduced price and higher launch rate as compared to Polar SLV (PSLV).
    • The projected high launch rate relies on largely autonomous launch operation and on overall simple logistics.
    • To compare, a PSLV launch involves 600 officials while SSLV launch operations would be managed by a small team of about six people.
    • The launch readiness period of the SSLV is expected to be less than a week instead of months.
    • The SSLV can carry satellites weighing up to 500 kg to a low earth orbit while the tried and tested PSLV can launch satellites weighing in the range of 1000 kg.
    • The entire job will be done in a very short time and the cost will be only around Rs 30 crore for SSLV.

    Significance of SSLV

    • SSLV is perfectly suited for launching multiple microsatellites at a time and supports multiple orbital drop-offs.
    • The development and manufacture of the SSLV are expected to create greater synergy between the space sector and private Indian industries – a key aim of the space ministry.

    Back2Basics: Various Orbits of Satellites

    [1] Geostationary orbit (GEO)

    • Satellites in geostationary orbit (GEO) circle Earth above the equator from west to east following Earth’s rotation – taking 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds – by travelling at exactly the same rate as Earth.
    • This makes satellites in GEO appear to be ‘stationary’ over a fixed position.
    • In order to perfectly match Earth’s rotation, the speed of GEO satellites should be about 3 km per second at an altitude of 35 786 km.
    • This is much farther from Earth’s surface compared to many satellites.
    • GEO is used by satellites that need to stay constantly above one particular place over Earth, such as telecommunication satellites.
    • Satellites in GEO cover a large range of Earth so as few as three equally-spaced satellites can provide near-global coverage.

    [2] Low Earth orbit (LEO)

    • A low Earth orbit (LEO) is, as the name suggests, an orbit that is relatively close to Earth’s surface.
    • It is normally at an altitude of less than 1000 km but could be as low as 160 km above Earth – which is low compared to other orbits, but still very far above Earth’s surface.
    • Unlike satellites in GEO that must always orbit along Earth’s equator, LEO satellites do not always have to follow a particular path around Earth in the same way – their plane can be tilted.
    • This means there are more available routes for satellites in LEO, which is one of the reasons why LEO is a very commonly used orbit.
    • It is most commonly used for satellite imaging, as being near the surface allows it to take images of higher resolution.
    • Satellites in this orbit travel at a speed of around 7.8 km per second; at this speed, a satellite takes approximately 90 minutes to circle Earth.

    [3] Medium Earth orbit (MEO)

    • Medium Earth orbit comprises a wide range of orbits anywhere between LEO and GEO.
    • It is similar to LEO in that it also does not need to take specific paths around Earth, and it is used by a variety of satellites with many different applications.
    • It is very commonly used by navigation satellites, like the European Galileo system of Europe.
    • It uses a constellation of multiple satellites to provide coverage across large parts of the world all at once.

    [4] Polar Orbit

    • Satellites in polar orbits usually travel past Earth from north to south rather than from west to east, passing roughly over Earth’s poles.
    • Satellites in a polar orbit do not have to pass the North and South Pole precisely; even a deviation within 20 to 30 degrees is still classed as a polar orbit.
    • Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes between 200 to 1000 km.

    [5] Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO)

    • SSO is a particular kind of polar orbit. Satellites in SSO, travelling over the polar regions, are synchronous with the Sun.
    • This means they are synchronised to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun.
    • This means that the satellite always visits the same spot at the same local time.
    • Often, satellites in SSO are synchronised so that they are in constant dawn or dusk – this is because by constantly riding a sunset or sunrise, they will never have the Sun at an angle where the Earth shadows them.
    • A satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit would usually be at an altitude of between 600 to 800 km. At 800 km, it will be travelling at a speed of approximately 7.5 km per second.

    [6] Transfer orbits and geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)

    • Transfer orbits are a special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit to another.
    • Often, the satellites are instead placed on a transfer orbit: an orbit where, by using relatively little energy from built-in motors, the satellite or spacecraft can move from one orbit to another.
    • This allows a satellite to reach, for example, a high-altitude orbit like GEO without actually needing the launch vehicle.
    • Reaching GEO in this way is an example of one of the most common transfer orbits, called the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).

     

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  • Indian Virtual Herbarium, biggest database of country’s flora, is a global hit

    With details of about one lakh plant specimens, the Indian Virtual Herbarium, the biggest virtual database of flora in the country, is generating a lot of interest and turning out to be an eye-catching endeavour.

    Indian Virtual Herbarium

    • A herbarium specimen is consists of dried plant parts with labelled information on Scientific name and collection data.
    • It has immense use in plant identification, systematics studies and ecological studies.
    • The Botanical Survey of India has more than 30,00,000 herbarium specimens persevered in different herbaria located in different parts of the country.
    • Developed by scientists of the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), the herbarium was inaugurated by Union Minister of Environment Forest and Climate Change in Kolkata last month.

    Why in news?

    • Since launch, the portal ivh.bsi.gov.in has had nearly two lakh hits from 55 countries.
    • The portal includes about one lakh images of herbarium specimens.
    • Each record in the digital herbarium includes an image of the preserved plant specimen, scientific name, collection locality, and collection date, collector name, and barcode number.
    • The digital herbarium includes features to extract the data State-wise, and users can search plants of their own States, which will help them identify regional plants and in building regional checklists.

    Significance of the herbaria

    • Scientists say that there are approximately three million plant specimens in the country which are with different herbaria located at zonal centres of the BSI.
    • About 52% of our type specimens are from foreign nations and collected from 82 countries of the world during the British-era.
    • The herbarium is also deeply linked with the botanical history of the country.
    • The portal provides most valuable historical collections of botanists like William Roxburgh, Nathaniel Wallich and Joseph Dalton Hooker, considered the founding fathers of botany in India.
    • The digital herbarium has some of the oldest botanical specimens dating as early as 1696.

     

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  • What is Genome Sequencing?

    Researchers from across the world have made available over 650 complete genome sequences of monkeypox isolates to date in public domain databases including GISAID and GenBank.

    What is Genome Sequencing?

    • Genome sequence is the unique code of genetic material of any organism, and determines the characteristic of any organism.
    • Whole genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome at a single time.
    • The gene composition of novel coronavirus, for instance, is different from that of the influenza virus. Every organism has a unique genome sequence.
    • Laboratories in various countries have been isolating and sharing the genome sequences of the virus on an international platform.

    Why are so many genome sequences being isolated?

    • When viruses multiply, or reproduce, there is a copying mechanism that transfers the gene information to the next generation.
    • However, no copying mechanism is perfect. When the virus multiplies, there will be small changes, which are called mutations.
    • These mutations accumulate over time, and after prolonged periods, are responsible for evolution into new organisms.
    • Within a single reproduction, the changes are extremely minor. More than 95 per cent of the gene structure remains the same.

    How does it help scientists?

    • However, the small changes that occur are crucial to understanding the nature and behaviour of the organism.
    • In this case, for example, the small changes could provide scientists with information about the origin, transmission, and impact of the virus on the patient.
    • It could also hold clues to the differing effects the virus could have on patients with different health parameters.

    Accelerated evolution of Monkeypox

    • The monkeypox virus has a DNA genome of around 2,00,000 base pairs, roughly six times larger than that of SARS-CoV-2.
    • Like other viruses, the monkeypox virus evolves by the accumulation of genetic errors, or mutations, in its genome when it replicates inside a host.
    • Being a DNA virus, the monkeypox virus like other poxviruses was believed to have a small rate of accumulating genetic changes compared to viruses with an RNA genome like SARS-CoV-2, which have a much larger rate of mutations.
    • For poxviruses, this rate is estimated to be as low as a couple of genetic changes every year.
    • A recent study, however, revealed that the observed rate of genetic changes in the virus was higher than expected — average of around 50 genetic changes.

    Key findings

    Ans. APOBEC3 protein

    • The study also suggests that several mutations that have been identified in the new sequences of the monkeypox virus.
    • This may have emerged due to interaction between the virus genome and an important family of proteins coded by the human genome known as the Apolipoprotein B Editing Complex (or APOBEC3).
    • These proteins offer protection against certain viral infections by editing the genome sequence of the virus while it replicates in the cell.
    • Some researchers suggest that many of the genetic mutations in the monkeypox genomes from the current outbreak are relics of the effect of APOBEC3.

    Conclusion

    • Genomic surveillance of pathogens provides interesting insights by following a molecular approach for contact tracing and understanding the transmission of the virus across the world.
    • As cases of monkeypox continue to rise, it is therefore important to strengthen the genomic surveillance for the monkeypox virus.
    • Since data from the present outbreak suggest a sustained human-to-human transmission, continuous genomic surveillance is important to understand the evolution and adaptation of the virus, apart from providing useful data to epidemiologists.
    • With COVID-19 continuing unabated and monkeypox around the corner, the time has never been better, and the need never more acute, to build a sustainable system for genomic surveillance in India.

     

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  • Hellfire R9X missile: The mystery weapon

    The US military used its ‘secret weapon’ — the Hellfire R9X missile – to kill Al Qaeda chief Ayman al-Zawahiri on the balcony of a safehouse in Kabul.

    What is the Hellfire R9X missile?

    • Better known in military circles as the AGM-114 R9X, the Hellfire R9X is a US-origin missile known to cause minimum collateral damage while engaging individual targets.
    • Also known as the ‘Ninja Missile’, this weapon does not carry a warhead and instead deploys razor-sharp blades at the terminal stage of its attack trajectory.
    • This helps it to break through even thick steel sheets and cut down the target using the kinetic energy of its propulsion without causing any damage to the persons in the general vicinity or to the structure of the building.
    • The blades pop out of the missile and cut down the intended target without causing the massive damage to the surroundings which would be the case with a missile carrying an explosive warhead.

    When did the Hellfire missile enter active service?

    • The Hellfire 9RX missile is known to have been in active service since 2017.
    • However, its existence became public knowledge two years later in 2019.
    • It is a variant of the original Hellfire missile family which is used in conventional form with warheads and is traditionally used from helicopters, ground-based vehicles, and sometimes small ships and fast moving vessels.
    • For several years now, the Hellfire family of missiles, including the ‘Ninja Missile’, are armed on Combat Unmanned Aerial Vehicles or drones.

    What is known about the other Hellfire missile variants?

    • Hellfire is actually an acronym for Heliborne, Laser, Fire and Forget Missile and it was developed in the US initially to target tanks from the Apache AH-64 attack helicopters.
    • Later, the usage of these missiles spread to several other variants of helicopters and also ground and sea-based systems and drones.
    • Developed by Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman, the Hellfire missile has other variants such as ‘Longbow’ and ‘Romeo’ apart from the ‘Ninja’.

     

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  • 5G

    The much-awaited auction for telecom spectrum, including for 5G airwaves, will begin tomorrow.

    Spectrums for auctions

    • A total of 72,097.85 MHz (or 72 Ghz) of spectrum with a validity period of 20 years will be put on the block.
    • Airwaves across low (600 MHz, 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, 2100 MHz, 2300 MHz), mid (3300 MHz) and high (26 GHz) frequency bands, valued at ₹4,316 billion ($56 billion) at least, will be put up for bidding.

    What is (Electromagnetic) Spectrum?

    • Devices such as cellphones and wireline telephones require signals to connect from one end to another.
    • These signals are carried on airwaves, which must be sent at designated frequencies to avoid any kind of interference.
    • The Union government owns all the publicly available assets within the geographical boundaries of the country, which also include airwaves.
    • With the expansion in the number of cellphones, wireline telephone and internet users, the need to provide more space for the signals arise from time to time.

    Spectrum allocations

    • Spectrum refers to the invisible radio frequencies that wireless signals travel over. The frequencies we use for wireless are only a portion of what is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
    • To sell these assets to companies willing to set up the required infrastructure to transport these waves from one end to another, the central government through the DoT auctions these airwaves from time to time.
    • These airwaves called spectrum is subdivided into bands which have varying frequencies.
    • All these airwaves are sold for a certain period of time, after which their validity lapses, which is generally set at 20 years.

    What is 5G technology?

    • 5G or fifth generation is the latest upgrade in the long-term evolution (LTE) mobile broadband networks.
    • It mainly works in 3 bands, namely low, mid and high-frequency spectrum — all of which have their own uses as well as limitations.

    Three bands of 5G

    (1) Low band spectrum

    • It has shown great promise in terms of coverage and speed of internet and data exchange, the maximum speed is limited to 100 Mbps (Megabits per second).
    • This means that while telcos can use and install it for commercial cellphones users who may not have specific demands for very high-speed internet, the low band spectrum may not be optimal for the specialized needs of the industry.

    (2) Mid-band spectrum

    • It offers higher speeds compared to the low band but has limitations in terms of coverage area and penetration of signals.
    • Telcos and companies, which have taken the lead on 5G, have indicated that this band may be used by industries and specialized factory units for building captive networks that can be molded into the needs of that particular industry.

    (3) High-band spectrum

    • It offers the highest speed of all the three bands, but has extremely limited coverage and signal penetration strength.
    • Internet speeds in the high-band spectrum of 5G have been tested to be as high as 20 Gbps (gigabits per second), while, in most cases, the maximum internet data speed in 4G has been recorded at 1 Gbps.

    Where does India stand in the 5G technology race?

    • On par with the global players, India had, in 2018, planned to start 5G services as soon as possible, with an aim to capitalize on the better network speeds and strength that the technology promised.
    • Indian private telecom players have been urging the DoT to lay out a clear road map of spectrum allocation and 5G frequency bands so that they would be able to plan the rollout of their services accordingly.
    • One big hurdle, however, is the lack of flow of cash and adequate capital with some companies due to their AGR dues.

    Global progress on 5G

    • More than governments, global telecom companies have started building 5G networks and rolling it out to their customers on a trial basis.
    • In countries like the US, some companies have taken the lead when it comes to rolling out commercial 5G for their users.
    • A South Korean company, which had started researching on 5G technology way back in 2011, has, on the other hand, take the lead when it comes to building the hardware for 5G networks for several companies.

     

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  • Dwindling fighter strength of the IAF

    In a tragic accident, a MIG-21 trainer jet of the Indian Air Force (IAF) crashed in Rajasthan killing both the high-ranked officer pilots onboard.

    What is the status of the MIG-21 jets in the IAF?

    • The MIG-21 was inducted into the IAF in the early 1960s and since then more than 800 variants of the supersonic fighter were inducted into service.
    • It remained the frontline fighter jet of the force for a long time.
    • During this period, there were over 400 accidents involving the jet which claimed the lives of around 200 pilots.

    Nature of service

    • Currently, there are four MIG-21 squadrons in service consisting of the upgraded Bison variant.
    • IAF officials have stated that there is technical life still left in them.
    • There are only four squadrons of the MIG-21 aircraft.

    Why use outdated aircraft?

    • With delays in new inductions, the IAF has been forced to continue the last four MIG-21 Bison squadrons in service.
    • One squadron is set to be phased out in the next few months, while the remaining three squadrons are planned to be phased out in the next three years.
    • This phase-out was worked out much before last week’s tragic incident.

    What is the present fighter strength of the IAF?

    • The IAF has an authorized strength of 42 fighter squadrons.
    • As time passes, the drawdown is increasing as the total technical life is completed.
    • However, the rate of new inductions is not matching the drawdown, depleting the overall number of fighter squadrons.
    • Additionally, several frontline aircraft in the inventory including the Jaguars, and MIG-29s will begin phasing out by the end of the decade.
    • For instance, by 2027-28 the first of the MIG-29s, inducted in the late 1980s, will start going out.

    New squadrons to be inducted

    • In the last few years, the IAF has inducted two squadrons of the indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas and two squadrons of Rafale fighter jets procured from France which pushed the squadron strength to 32.
    • In January 2021, the IAF had signed a contract with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for 83 of the more advanced LCA MK-1A which it will start receiving from early 2024 onwards.
    • Along with that the to-be-acquired 114 Multi-Role Fighter Aircraft (MRFA) will help arrest the drawdown.
    • A larger and even more capable LCA-MK2, as well as the fifth generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), are under development.
    • However, their availability in enough numbers will take some time.

    Inherent limitations to the IAF

    • Hardware/Technological Challenges: Technology is at the core of an air force – acquiring and assimilating it is our primary challenge. The lack of it curtails national options, impacting postures and doctrines. Denial and selective availability of technology are all enmeshed in international relations.
    • Maintenance Challenges: Maintenance challenges determine how long aircrafts last and their cost-effectiveness. ‘Maintainability’, which includes logistical issues, is therefore, crucial.
    • Relying on Upgrades: IAF is badly in need of new Fighter Aircraft to compete with new 5th generation Modern jets. At current there are old aircraft and it is mostly dependant on Super Manoeuvrable Modern Generation Fighter Jet Su 30 MKI.
    • Delaying of Aircraft Delivery: The current order of IAF the Rafale is expected to be completed in 2024. The LCA Tejas of HAL has now produced 21 but still it has to manufacture in more number to replace the retiring MIG 21 BISON.

    Roadmap to shore up fighter strength

    • No easy roadmap: The IAF has acknowledged that they will not be able to achieve the desired strength for the time being and that they are doing the best they can.
    • Indigenous aircraft: In addition to the indigenous aircraft coming up, the IAF is confident that increasing the low availability rates of Su-30 and other fighters in service will offset some of the shortfalls in the interim.
    • Offsets of war: This could be potentially impacted due to the war in Ukraine even though officials have said that they are assessing the impact of the war and western sanctions.

    Way forward

    • Air power is becoming technologically more refined with unmanned platforms, cyber-space linkages and AI advances.
    • The inherent trans-border nature of this military capability needs astute professional and political husbanding.
    • Acquiring credible aerospace power with a meaningful degree of indigenization will need a greater degree of national resolve, professional integrity and resource allocation than is the case now.
    • China has demonstrated the degree of suasion and intimidation that airpower can bring to bear in relation to Taiwan.

     

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  • AlphaFold: AI-based Protein Structure Prediction Tool

    DeepMind, a company based in London and owned by Google, announced that it had predicted the three-dimensional structures of more than 200 million proteins using AlphaFold.

    This is the entire protein universe known to scientists today.

    What is AlphaFold?

    • AlphaFold is an AI-based protein structure prediction tool.
    • It is based on a computer system called deep neural network.
    • Inspired by the human brain, neural networks use a large amount of input data and provide the desired output exactly like how a human brain would.
    • The real work is done by the black box between the input and the output layers, called the hidden networks. AlphaFold is fed with protein sequences as input.
    • When protein sequences enter through one end, the predicted three-dimensional structures come out through the other.
    • It is like a magician pulling a rabbit out of a hat.

    How does AlphaFold work?

    • It uses processes based on “training, learning, retraining and relearning.”
    • The first step uses the available structures of 1,70,000 proteins in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) to train the computer model.
    • Then, it uses the results of that training to learn the structural predictions of proteins not in the PDB.
    • Once that is done, it uses the high-accuracy predictions from the first step to retrain and relearn to gain higher accuracy of the earlier predictions.
    • By using this method, AlphaFold has now predicted the structures of the entire 214 million unique protein sequences deposited in the Universal Protein Resource (UniProt)

    What are the implications of this development?

    • Proteins are the business ends of biology, meaning proteins carry out all the functions inside a living cell.
    • Therefore, knowing protein structure and function is essential to understanding human diseases.
    • Scientists predict protein structures using x-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, or cryogenic electron microscopy.
    • These techniques are not just time-consuming, they often take years and are based mainly on trial-and-error methods.
    • The development of AlphaFold changes all of that.
    • It is a watershed movement in science and structural biology in particular.

    What does this development mean for India?

    • Vaccine development: Understanding the accurate structures of COVID-19 virus proteins in days rather than years will accelerate vaccine and drug development against the virus.
    • Structural biology: From the seminal contribution of G. N. Ramachandran in understanding protein structures to the present day, India is no stranger to the field and has produced some fine structural biologists.

    Back2Basics: Proteins

    • Protein is found throughout the body—in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other body part or tissue.
    • It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your blood.
    • At least 10,000 different proteins make you what you are and keep you that way.
    • Protein is made from twenty-plus basic building blocks called amino acids.
    • Because we don’t store amino acids, our bodies make them in two different ways: either from scratch or by modifying others.
    • Nine amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—known as the essential amino acids, must come from food.
    • Chemically, amino acids are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur.
    • There are seven types of proteins: antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins.

     

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  • Uncontrolled Descent of Space Debris

    A Chinese booster rocket made an uncontrolled return to earth, leading to US furore against Beijing for not sharing information about the potentially hazardous object’s descent.

    Yet another Chinese irresponsibility

    • Ending over a week of global anxiety and alarm, the debris from a large Chinese rocket – the Long March 5B — crashed to earth over the Pacific and the Indian oceans.
    • It felt into the Sulu Sea near Malaysia.
    • The 22-tonne core stage of the rocket hurtled uncontrollably back to earth. There were fears that it might hit a populated area.
    • China, however, had dismissed these fears despite widespread criticism for rocket re-entry risks imposed by it on the world.

    What is an Uncontrolled Re-entry?

    • Generally, the core or first stage of a rocket is made up of heavy pieces that usually don’t reach orbit after liftoff, and fall back safely along a near-precise projected trajectory.
    • If they do enter an orbit, then a costly de-orbit manoeuvre is required for a steered, controlled return using engine burn.
    • Without a de-orbit manoeuvre, the orbital core stage makes an uncontrolled fall.

    Why did it fell back?

    • Gigantic remnants from China’s Long March 5B rockets’ core stage are known to make such fiery, out-of-control descents back to earth.
    • Most nations’ rockets, separate the launcher from the payload before leaving the atmosphere.
    • An extra engine then gives the payload a final boost.
    • But China’s 5B series does NOT use a second engine and pushes right into orbit, the report points out.

    Why is it difficult to track uncontrolled descents?

    • The variables involved make it difficult to precisely track the re-entry time and drop zone of rocket debris in uncontrolled descents.
    • The factors that make this prediction extremely challenging include atmospheric drag, variations in solar activity, angle and rotational variation of the object among others.
    • A miscalculation of even a minute in re-entry time could result in the final resting place of the debris changing by hundreds of kilometres.
    • It’s important to understand that among the 10 tough things that we do in space, debris re-entry is probably one of the toughest ones to predict.

    Are there laws regulating space junk?

    Yes. The Space Liability Convention of 1972.

    • It defines responsibility in case a space object causes harm.
    • The treaty says that a launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage caused by its space objects on the surface of the earth or to aircraft, and liable for damage due to its faults in space.
    • The Convention also provides for procedures for the settlement of claims for damages.
    • However, there is no law against space junk crashing back to earth.
    • In April this year, suspected debris from a Chinese rocket was found in two Maharashtra villages.

    Cases of settlements

    • In 1979, the re-entry of NASA’s 76-ton Skylab had scattered debris over uninhabited parts of Australia, and the space agency was fined $400 for littering by a local government.
    • The only settlement using the Liability Convention was between the erstwhile Soviet Union and Canada over the debris of Soviet Cosmos 954 falling in a barren region.
    • Canada was paid CAD 3 million in accordance with international law for cleaning up the mess.

    Do you know?

    The 1979 Skylab was rumoured to be falling in India. We may ask our parents who were apparently kids at that time. The event was widely perceived as a Pralay (doomsday) in rural India back then! People were in all joy with festive food/partying every day fearing so that they would never see the next dawn!!