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Subject: Science and Technology

  • What is Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)?

    • To speed up testing as well as improve the accuracy of testing COVID-19, the CSIR is working on developing “mega labs” where large machines, called Next Generation Sequencing machines (NGS), will be used for sequencing human genomes.
    • It is repurposed to sequence 1,500-3,000 viral genomes at a go for detecting the SARS-CoV-2 novel coronavirus.

    Try this PYQ:

    What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (CSP 2018)

    (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

    (b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

    (c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

    (d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

    What is NGS?

    • DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA.
    • It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine.
    • The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and medical research and discovery.
    • Next-generation sequencing (NGS), also known as high-throughput sequencing, is the catch-all term used to describe a number of different modern sequencing technologies.
    • These technologies allow for sequencing of DNA and RNA much more quickly and cheaply than the previously used Sanger sequencing, and as such revolutionized the study of genomics and molecular biology.

    Benefits

    • The genome sequencing machines can substantially detect the possible presence of the virus even in several instances where the traditional RT-PCR tests miss out on them.
    • This is primarily because the RT-PCR test identifies the SARS-CoV-2 virus by exploring only specific sections of the virus.
    • Having an edge, the genome method can read a bigger chunk of the virus genome and thereby provide more certainty that the virus in question is indeed the particular coronavirus of interest.
    • It can also trace the evolutionary history of the virus and track mutations more reliably.

    Back2Basics:

    PCR Test for Diagnosis of the COVID-19

  • abscisic acid (ABA)

    A team of researchers at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Bhopal, has conducted a study on seed germination that could have a major impact on agriculture.

    What is the study about?

    • The study aims to determine the optimum timing of seed germination and thus ensure high plant yields.
    • It focused on the interplay between plant hormones like abscisic acid (ABA) which inhibit the sprouting of the seed and environmental cues like light (which promotes the sprouting process) and darkness.

    Note the following plant hormones and their functions:

    Hormone

    Function
    Ethylene Fruit ripening and abscission
    Gibberellins Break the dormancy of seeds and buds; promote growth
    Cytokinins Promote cell division; prevent senescence
    Abscisic Acid Close the stomata; maintain dormancy
    Auxins Involved in tropisms and apical dominance

    What is Abscisic Acid? 

    • Humans have glands that secrete hormones at different times to stimulate body processes such as growth, development, and the breaking down of sugars.  
    • Plants also have hormones that stimulate processes that are necessary for them to live.  
    • Abscisic acid is a plant hormone involved in many developmental plant processes, such as dormancy and environmental stress response.  
    • Abscisic acid is produced in the roots of the plant as well as the terminal buds at the top of the plant. 

    Function of Abscisic Acid 

    Abscisic acid is involved in several plant functions.  

    • Plants have openings on the bottom side of their leaves, known as stomata. Stomata take in carbon dioxide and regulate water content. Abscisic acid has been found to function in the closing of these stomata during times when the plant does not require as much carbon dioxide or during times of drought when the plant cannot afford to lose much water through transpiration. 
    • One of the crucial functions of abscisic acid is to inhibit seed germination. Abscisic acid has been found to stop a seed from immediately germinating once it has been placed in the soil. It actually causes the seed to enter a period of dormancy.  
    • This is of great benefit to the plants because most seeds are formed at the end of the growing season, when conditions would not be favorable for a new plant to sprout. The abscisic acid causes the seed to wait until the time when conditions are more favorable to grow. This ensures greater success in the plant’s ability to grow and reproduce successfully. 
    • ABA functions in many plant developmental processes, including seed and bud dormancy, the control of organ size and stomatal closure. It is especially important for plants in the response to environmental stresses, including drought, soil salinity, cold tolerance, freezing tolerance, heat stress and heavy metal ion tolerance.

  • SPT0418-47: The Baby Milky Way

    SPT0418-47, a golden halo glinting 12 billion light-years away is the farthest galaxy resembling our Milky Way was recently spotted by astronomers.

    Try this PYQ:

    Which of the statements about black holes in space is/are correct?  (CSP 2016)

    1. It is a region in space where the pulling force of gravity is so strong that light is not able to escape.
    2. It can result from the dying stars.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    SPT0418-47

    • The galaxy, called SPT0418-47, is so far away that it took billions of years for its light to reach Earth and so our image of it is from deep in the past.
    • It was picked up by the powerful Alma radio telescope in Chile using a technique called gravitational lensing, where a nearby galaxy acts as a powerful magnifying glass.
    • This was when the Universe was 1.4 billion years old — just 10% of its current age — and galaxies were still forming.
    • It has features similar to our Milky Way — a rotating disc and a bulge, which is the high density of stars packed tightly around the galactic centre.

    What makes it special?

    • This is the first time a bulge has been seen this early in the history of the Universe, making SPT0418-47 the most distant Milky Way look-alike.
    • Thus the infant star system challenges our understanding of the early years of the Universe.
    • Researchers expect these young star systems to be chaotic and without the distinct structures typical of mature galaxies like our Galaxy.
    • This unexpected discovery suggests the early Universe may not be as chaotic as once believed and raises many questions on how a well-ordered galaxy could have formed so soon after the Big Bang.

    Back2Basics: Milky Way

    • The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy’s appearance from Earth.
    • It appears like a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye.
    • From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within.
    • Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610.
    • Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe.
    • Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.

  • Perseids Meteor Shower

    The Perseids meteor shower is going to be active from August 17-26.

    Try this question from CSP 2014:

    Q.What is a coma, in the content of astronomy?

    (a) Bright half of material on the comet

    (b) Long tail of dust

    (c) Two asteroids orbiting each other

    (d) Two planets orbiting each other

    What is the Perseids meteor shower?

    • The Perseids meteor shower peaks every year in mid-August. It was first observed over 2,000 years ago.
    • The Perseids occur as the Earth runs into pieces of cosmic debris left behind by the comet Swift-Tuttle.
    • The cloud of debris is about 27 km wide, and at the peak of the display, between 160 and 200 meteors streak through the Earth’s atmosphere every hour as the pieces of debris.
    • They travel at the speed of some 2.14 lakh km per hour; burn up a little less than 100 km above the Earth’s surface.

    What are Meteor Showers?

    • Meteors are bits of rock and ice that are ejected from comets as they manoeuvre around their orbits around the sun.
    • As meteors fall towards the Earth, the resistance makes the space rocks extremely hot and, as meteorites pass through the atmosphere, they leave behind streaks of glowing gas that are visible to the observers and not the rock itself.
    • Meteor showers, on the other hand, are witnessed when Earth passes through the trail of debris left behind by a comet or an asteroid.
    • When a meteor reaches the Earth, it is called a meteorite and a series of meteorites, when encountered at once, is termed as a meteor shower.
    • According to NASA, over 30 meteor showers occur annually and are observable from the Earth.

    Where do the Perseids come from?

    • The comet Swift-Tuttle, which was discovered in 1862 by Lewis Swift and Horace Tuttle, takes 133 years to complete one rotation around the sun.
    • The last time it reached its closest approach to the sun was in 1992 and will do so again in 2125.
    • Every time comets come close to the sun, they leave behind dust that is essentially the debris trail, which the Earth passes through every year as it orbits around the Sun.

    Back2Basics:

     

  • [pib] Krishi Megh: A Cloud-based Data Recovery Centre

    Union Minister of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare has launched the Krishi Megh Data Recovery Centre.

    Do not get confused with the name ‘Krishi Megh’. One might mistakenly relate it to some weather forecasting tool of the Indian Meteorological Department.

    Krishi Megh

    • The Krishi Megh has been set up at National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM), Hyderabad.
    • It has been set up under the National Agricultural Higher Education Project (NAHEP), funded by both the government and World Bank.
    • It has been built to mitigate the risk, enhance the quality, availability and accessibility of e-governance, research, extension and education in the field of agriculture in India.
    • Currently, the main data centre of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is at the Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (IASRI) in New Delhi.

    Back2Basics: Cloud Storage

    • It is a cloud computing model that stores data on the Internet through a cloud computing provider who manages and operates data storage as a service.
    • It is delivered on demand with just-in-time capacity and costs, and eliminates buying and managing your own data storage infrastructure.
    • It gives agility, global scale and durability, with “anytime, anywhere” data access.

  • Submarine Cable Connectivity to Andaman and Nicobar Islands

    PM has launched the submarine Optical Fibre Cable (OFC) connecting Andaman & Nicobar Islands to the mainland.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q. Consider the following statements regarding optical fibres:

    1. A layer called the cladding, which has a refractive index more than that of the core, surrounds the core of the optical fibre.
    2. Light is propagated in an optical fibre by refraction and internal reflection.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?(CSP 2010)

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    What is a submarine communications cable?

    • A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the seabed between land-based stations to transmit telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean and sea.
    • The optical fibre elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed.
    • Compared to satellites, using internet connection through submarine cables is more reliable, cost-efficient and of large capacity.

    About the project

    • About 2,300 km of submarine optical fibre cable (OFC) has been laid at a cost of about Rs 1,224 crore to provide better connectivity in the UT.
    • The project envisages better connectivity from Chennai to Port Blair and seven other Islands — Swaraj Deep (Havelock), Long Island, Rangat, Hutbay (Little Andaman), Kamorta, Car Nicobar and Campbell Bay (Great Nicobar).
    • The project is funded by the government through the Universal Service Obligation Fund under the ministry of communications.
    • The foundation stone for the project was laid by PM Modi in December 2018 at Port Blair.

    Expected outcomes

    • The OFC will enable the delivery of faster and more reliable mobile and landline telecom services to Andaman & Nicobar Islands, at par with other parts of India.
    • The submarine optical fibre cable link will deliver bandwidth of 2 x 200 Gigabits per second (Gbps) between Chennai and Port Blair, and 2 x 100 Gbps between Port Blair and the other islands.
    • 4G mobile services, which were constrained due to limited backhaul bandwidth provided via satellite, will also see a major boost.

    Benefits of the project

    • Better connectivity in the region will facilitate the delivery of e-governance services such as telemedicine and tele-education.
    • E-commerce: Small enterprises will benefit from opportunities in e-commerce, while educational institutions will utilise the enhanced availability of bandwidth for e-learning and knowledge sharing.
    • Business Process Outsourcing services and other medium and large enterprises too also benefit from better connectivity.
    • Low cost internet:The internet bills in Andaman and Nicobar will also come down substantially.

  • Magnetoseismology of Sun’s Corona

    A group of researchers has measured the global magnetic field of the Sun’s corona for the very first time.

    Try this PYQ:

    The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, `String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of (CSP 2017)-

    (a) Observation and understanding of the Universe

    (b) Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses

    (c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth

    (d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth

    Basis of the research

    • The properties of waves depend on the medium in which they travel.
    • By measuring certain wave properties and doing a reverse calculation, some of the properties of the medium through which they have travelled can be obtained.
    • Waves can be longitudinal waves (for example, sound waves) or transverse waves (for example, ripples on a lake surface).
    • The waves that propagate through magnetic plasma are called magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves.
    • From the theoretical calculation, it can be shown that the properties of the transverse MHD wave are directly related to the strength of magnetic fields and the density of the corona.

    How was the Magnetic Field measured?

    • The team used a technique known as coronal seismology or magnetoseismology to measure the coronal magnetic field which has been known for a few decades.
    • This method requires the measurement of the properties of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves and the density of the corona simultaneously.
    • In the past, these techniques were occasionally used in small regions of the corona, or some coronal loops due to limitations of our instruments/and proper data analysis techniques.

    The CoMP instrument

    • The team used the improved measurements of the Coronal Multi-channel Polarimeter (CoMP) and advanced data analysis to measure the coronal magnetic field.
    • CoMP is an instrument operated by High Altitude Observatory, of the U.S.
    • It is located at Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, near the summit of that volcano on the big island of Hawaii.

    Why measure the solar magnetic field?

    • It is very important to measure the corneal magnetic fields regularly since the solar corona is highly dynamic and varies within seconds to a minute time scale. There are two main puzzles about the Sun which this advancement will help address:

    (1) Coronal heating problem

    • Though the core of the Sun is at a temperature of about 15 million degrees, its outer layer, the photosphere is a mere 5700 degrees hot.
    • However, its corona or outer atmosphere, which stretches up to several million kilometres beyond its surface, is much, much hotter than the surface.
    • It is at a temperature of one million degrees or more.
    • What causes the atmosphere of the Sun (corona) to heat up again, though the surface (photosphere) is cooler than the interior? That is the question which has baffled solar physicists.
    • Popular attempts to explain this puzzle invoke the magnetic field of the corona. Hence the present work will help understand and verify these theories better.

    (2) Mechanisms of eruptions of the Sun

    • The eruptions on the Sun include solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
    • These are driven by magnetic reconnections happening in the Sun’s corona.
    • Magnetic reconnection is a process where oppositely polarity magnetic field lines connect and some of the magnetic energy is converted to heat energy and also kinetic energy which leads to the generation of heating, solar flares, solar jets, etc.

  • Importance of the post academic research

    Post-academic research have a direct bearing on national development. India needs to focus on it along with academic research. This article explains this issue.

    Context

    • The Government of India is in the process of revisiting the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Policy.
    • At this stage we need to ponder the question: what kind of research should be funded?

    How to measure the maturity level of a particular technology?

    • Experts have come up with frameworks and terminology to provide a comprehensive picture and avoid any value judgement.
    • One approach was proposed by NASA in the form of Technology Readiness Levels (TRL).
    • TRL-1 corresponds to observation of basic principles. Its result is publications.
    • TRL-2 corresponds to formulation of technology at the level of concepts.
    • Then the TRL framework advances to proof of concept, validation in a laboratory environment, followed by a relevant environment, and then to prototype demonstration, and ending with actual deployment.
    • An alternative is to use the terminology ‘Academic Research (AR)’, and ‘Post-Academic Research (PAR)’.
    • To provide some granularity, one can divide PAR into early-stage PAR, and late-stage PAR.
    • Late-stage PAR has to be done by large laboratories (national or those supported by industry).
    • AR and early-stage PAR can be done at higher education institutions and large laboratories.

    Importance of Post-Academic Research(PAR)

    • From the perspective of national development, pursuit of AR alone, while necessary, is not sufficient.
    • AR and PAR, when pursued together and taken to their logical conclusion, will result in a product or a process,
    • Or it can also result in a better clinical practice, or a scientifically robust understanding of human health and disease, or provide inputs for a policy decision.

    Issues in comparing investment in research among countries

    • 1) We cannot compare data with other countries without having correspondence between India’s data and data reported by others.
    • Countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report research statistics according to the Frascati Manual.
    • 2) India has to decide where to increase investment: in AR or in PAR.

    Research and national development

    • Investment in research can translate into national development only through pursuit of PAR.
    • Our industry has not reached a stage where they can absorb research being done by higher education institutions.
    • This reveals that research being pursued is either not addressing national needs or is limited to AR.

    Way forward

    • Judging the growth of Science-and-Technology based only on publications (e.g. research papers) provides an incomplete picture.
    • We should increasing the technology intensity of industry, which was identified as one of the goals of the STI policy issued in 2013.
    • This needs reiteration and a mechanism should be devised to monitor progress with the objective of becoming an ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’.
    • The STI policy should emphasise PAR to ensure that investment in research results in economic growth.
    • To motivate the research community to pursue at least early-stage PAR, the reward system needs significant reorientation.
    • Academics in higher education institutions pursuing AR should pursue early-stage PAR themselves, or team up with those who are keen to pursue PAR.

    Consider the question “Examine the factors that responsible for the lack of research and development in India? Also, elaborate on the importance of post-academic research in the country.”

    Conclusion

    These factors are sufficient to indicate that academic research is necessary, but not sufficient and we must focus on PAR adequately.

  • SN5 Starship by SpaceX

    SpaceX has successfully test-launched its “Mars ship”, a stainless steel test vehicle called SN5, and which is a part of the Starship spacecraft.

    Elon Musk’s aerospace company has been putting continuous wins on the board ever since it became the first privately funded group to put a payload in Earth orbit.

    What is Starship?

    • Designed by SpaceX, Starship is a spacecraft and super-heavy booster rocket meant to act as a reusable transportation system for crew and cargo to the Earth’s orbit, Moon and Mars.
    • SpaceX has described Starship as “the world’s most powerful launch vehicle” with an ability to carry over 100 metric tonnes to the Earth’s orbit.
    • Starship has been under development since 2012 and is a part of Space X’s central mission to make interplanetary travel accessible and affordable and to become the first private company to do so.

    So what all can Starship do?

    • SpaceX is planning its first cargo mission to the red planet by 2022 and by 2024, the company wants to fly four ships including two cargo and two crewed ones to Mars.
    • Once functional, the Starship spacecraft will enter Mars’ atmosphere at a speed of 7.5 km per second and will be designed to withstand multiple entries.
    • Starship is also expected to help carry large amounts of cargo to the Moon, for human spaceflight development and research.
    • Beyond the Moon, the spacecraft is being designed for carrying crew and cargo for interplanetary missions as well.

    A quest for reusability

    • Therefore, the company is working on building a fleet of reusable launch vehicles, capable of carrying humans to Mars and other destinations in the solar system.
    • Reusability is at the heart of making interplanetary travel accessible.

  • Nagara Architecture of Ayodhya’s Ram Temple

    The grand temple at Rama Janmabhoomi in Ayodhya will follow the Nagara style of temple architecture.

    Note the various features of the Nagara and Vesara style of temple architecture from your basic references.

    What is Nagara style of temple architecture?

    The basic form of a Hindu temple contains the following architectural elements:

    1. Garbhagriha – the small room where the principal deity/deities of the temple reside
    2. Mandapa – the portico or hall at the entrance of the temple generally designed to house a large number of people
    3. Shikhara – the mountain like spire which can have different shapes from pyramidal to curvilinear
    4. Vahana – the mount of the main deity placed generally in line of sight from Garbhagriha
    • In this style, the temple is generally constructed on an upraised platform called Jagati.
    • Mandapas are present in front of the These are adorned with the Shikhara, the tallest one being above the Garbhagriha.
    • The shikhara over the mandapas in the pictures of the Ayodhya Ram temple can be seen having a square base, and a rectilinear outline.
    • This is called the phamsana-style shikhara. Note that the mandapa shikhara right at the entrance has an octagonal base.

    Similar to Khajuraho Temple

    • There are different types of Shikhara found in Indian temples.
    • A comparison with Khajuraho Vishwanath temple, also built in Nagara style, shows the similarity between the two.
    • Note that the main shikhara of the two are remarkably similar.
    • They rise upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an Amalaka topped with a Kalasha. This is called the Latina-style shikhara.

    Note: This newscard is an excerpt from an original article published in Swarajya Magazine.

    Back2Basics: The Ramjanmabhoomi Case