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Subject: Science and Technology

  • What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology/? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?

    Applied biotechnology focuses on the practical application of these biological insights to solve real-world problems in sectors like agriculture, healthcare, environment, and industry.

    R&D Achievements in Applied Biotechnology

    Genomics: Genome India Project sequenced 10,000 Indian genomes. It provides a baseline for understanding genetic diseases unique to the Indian population.

    Climate-Resilient Crops: Eg- Sahbhagi Dhan for drought and Swarna-Sub1 for flood- prone areas has secured yields in disaster-prone regions.

    Human health

    Indigenous Vaccine Platforms: Eg- Development of the world’s first DNA-based COVID-19 vaccine (ZyCoV-D) and the indigenously developed HPV vaccine (Cervavac) for cervical cancer.

    Bio-fortification: R&D has led to the creation of nutrient-rich crop varieties, such as Sakti-1 maize (high lysine and tryptophan) and CR Dhan 310 (high protein rice).

    Bio-remediation and Waste-to-Wealth: Success in developing “Microbial Consortia” for cleaning oil spills (OilZapper) and converting agricultural waste into ethanol (2G Biofuels).

    Restorative Health

    Regenerative Research: Eg- LV Prasad Eye Institute (LVPEI) in Hyderabad has pioneered significant advancements in using limbal stem cells to restore vision.

    Synthetic Biology: Research into metabolic engineering has allowed for the microbial production of high-value compounds like Artemisinin (anti-malarial drug), reducing dependence on plant extraction.

    Molecular Diagnostics: The creation of low-cost, paper-based diagnostic strips (like the FELUDA test) for various infectious diseases has decentralized high-end testing.

    Uplifting Poorer Sections of Society

    Food and Nutritional Security: Bio-fortified crops directly combat “Hidden Hunger” among the rural poor by providing essential vitamins and minerals through their daily staple diet.

    Increased Farm Income: Biotech seeds like Bt Cotton and bio-stimulants reduce the cost of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, increasing the net profit margin for farmers.

    Affordable Healthcare: Local manufacturing of biologicals and biosimilars through biotech processes makes life-saving drugs like insulin and monoclonal antibodies affordable.

    Animal Husbandry and Dairy: Achievements in In-vitro Fertilization (IVF) for cattle and sex-sorted semen technology have helped landless laborers increase milk yield and improve livestock quality.

    Clean Environment and Sanitation: Biotech-based Bio-toilets utilize anaerobic bacteria to treat human waste in areas without sewage systems, improving hygiene and dignity for urban slum dwellers.

    Employment Generation: The growth of the Bio-Economy (targeted at $300 billion by 2030) creates a range of jobs from high-end research to low-skilled manufacturing.

    Energy Security: The production of bio-gas and ethanol from farm residue provides a secondary source of income for farmers while offering cheaper, cleaner fuel for cooking and transport.

    Resilience to Climate Change: For the poor who are most vulnerable to weather shocks, biotech-developed salt-tolerant or heat-resistant seeds provide a safety net against crop failure.

    Applied biotechnology is no longer a luxury science but a fundamental pillar for inclusive growth.

  • The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?

    The Blue LEDs invention triggered a fundamental shift in lighting technology, comparable to the transition from the candle to the incandescent bulb. Without the Blue LED, the world was stuck with energy-inefficient incandescent bulbs and mercury-laden fluorescent lamps.

    Impact on Everyday Life

    Energy Efficiency: LEDs convert 50% of energy to light, compared to just 4% for incandescent bulbs lasting 100,000 hours. This efficiency slashes global CO2 emissions.

    Electronics & Mobility: Provided the essential backlighting for LCD screens in smartphones and laptops, allowing for thinner designs and significantly longer battery life.

    Cost-saving: Eg- 50000 hours of white LEDs cost $86 compared to $350 in incandescent light.

    Democratization of Light: Enabled low-power, solar-powered LED lamps, providing safe and affordable light to over a billion people in off-grid rural areas.

    New innovations: Eg- New screens of mobiles & TV which are more efficient & sustainable.

    Advancements in Healthcare and Sanitation

    Water Purification: UV-light emitting diodes are used to sterilize drinking water by destroying the DNA of bacteria and viruses.

    Medical Treatment: Blue light is used in phototherapy to treat neonatal jaundice and certain skin conditions.

    Sustainable Agriculture (Vertical Farming)

    Blue light is essential for photosynthesis.

    Indoor Farming: By fine-tuning light “recipes” using Blue and Red LEDs, farmers can grow food indoors in urban environments without pesticides, using 90% less water

    Enhanced Communication and Connectivity

    Optical Storage: The development of the blue laser led to Blu-ray technology, allowing for much higher data storage densities than earlier red-laser CDs or DVDs.

    Li-Fi: Current research is using Blue LEDs for Light Fidelity (Li-Fi), a high-speed wireless communication technology that transmits data through light pulses.

    Government initiatives promoting LEDs

    UJALA ( Unnat Jyoti by affordable LED for all)

    Street Lighting National Program (SLNP) as Prakash Rath

    In 2026, as we strive for Net Zero goals, the Blue LED remains our most effective tool for “decarbonizing” the night.

  • Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race?

    The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a collaboration between NASA, ESA, and CSA. It is the most powerful orbital observatory ever built.

    Positioned at the Second Lagrange Point (L2), 1.5 million km from Earth, it acts as a “time machine,” allowing humanity to peer back over 13.5 billion years to the dawn of the universe.

    Unique Features vs. Predecessors (Hubble & Spitzer)

    Key Goals of the Mission

    First Light: Observe the first stars and galaxies formed after the Big Bang.

    Galaxy Evolution: Study how galaxies formed and changed over time.

    Star & Planet Formation: Examine the birth of stars and planetary systems through cosmic dust.

    Exoplanets & Life: Analyzes exoplanet atmospheres to detect gases like water vapour, methane, and carbon dioxide that may support life.

    Solar System Studies: Investigate planets, moons, and other solar system bodies.

    Infrared Astronomy: Use infrared technology to observe distant and hidden cosmic objects.

    Benefits for the Human Race

    Solving Cosmic Origins: It helps us understand how the carbon and oxygen in our bodies were first synthesized in the first stars.

    Exoplanet Discovery: identifying Earth-like planets (e.g., in the TRAPPIST-1 system).

    Medical Advancements: The technology used to scan JWST’s mirrors has been adapted for LASIK eye surgery, improving precision for human vision correction.

    Cryogenic Engineering: Breakthroughs in JWST’s cooling systems have benefitted industries requiring ultra-cold storage, such as supercomputing.

    The massive data from JWST has accelerated the development of AI and Machine Learning algorithms used in earthly data analysis.

    Informing Climate Models: By studying the atmospheres of other planets, scientists gain a better perspective on the chemical processes driving Earth’s climate change.

    International Cooperation: It serves as a model for peaceful diplomacy, involving over 14 countries and 300 universities working toward a shared human goal.

    Scientific Literacy: The breathtaking images (like the “Pillars of Creation”) inspire millions of students to pursue careers in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math).

    Refining Physics: By observing the expansion of the universe, it helps resolve the “Hubble Tension,” leading to a more accurate understanding of dark matter and dark energy.

    Thus, The James Webb Space Telescope represents the pinnacle of human ingenuity.

  • What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines?

    Vaccines are biological preparations that provide immunity against infectious diseases by training the immune system to fight pathogens. India has emerged as a global vaccine hub, supplying over 60% of global vaccine demand through indigenous vaccine development.

    Basic Principle Behind Vaccine Development

    Mimicking natural infection: Vaccines imitate infections to safely activate the body’s immune defenses.

    Antigen as the key component: Vaccines contain antigens that trigger antibody production. These may include:

    Weakened or killed pathogens

    Pathogen fragments or genetic material

    Inactivated bacterial toxins (toxoids)

    Types of vaccine platform:

    Live-attenuated vaccines: Use weakened living pathogens, providing strong immunity but posing risks to immunocompromised individuals. Eg- MMR and Chickenpox vaccines.

    Non-live vaccines: Use killed pathogens or subunits, making them safer but requiring booster doses due to shorter immunity. Eg- DTaP vaccine.

    Addressing viral mutations: Vaccines for rapidly mutating viruses are periodically updated to maintain protection. Eg- Seasonal flu vaccines and COVID-19 boosters.

    How Vaccines Work?

    Immune system activation: Vaccine antigens are recognized as foreign threats, activating white blood cells to multiply and respond.

    Antibody production: White blood cells produce antibodies that specifically identify and neutralize the pathogen.

    Immunological memory: After the antigen is removed, memory cells remain in the body, providing long-term immunity.

    Protection against disease: On future exposure, memory cells rapidly produce antibodies, preventing severe illness or death.

    Approaches Adopted by Indian Vaccine Manufacturers for COVID-19

    Inactivated whole-virion platform (Covaxin): Bharat Biotech and Indian Council of Medical Research developed a vaccine using chemically inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus to safely trigger immunity.

    Viral vector platform (Covishield): Serum Institute of India(SII) used a harmless chimpanzee adenovirus carrying spike protein genetic code to stimulate immune response.

    Recombinant protein subunit platform (Covovax & Corbevax): SII and Biological E developed vaccines using purified spike proteins with adjuvants to induce antibodies.

    DNA plasmid platform (ZyCoV-D): Zydus Cadila developed the world’s first human DNA vaccine using plasmid DNA delivered through a needle-free injector.

    mRNA platform (GEMCOVAC-19): Gennova Biopharmaceuticals developed an mRNA vaccine using lipid nanoparticles to deliver spike-protein instructions safely into cells.

    India’s diverse COVID-19 vaccine response-from inactivated vaccines to DNA and mRNA platforms-has strengthened its role as the Pharmacy of the World. Expanding indigenous R&D and ensuring timely immunization remain vital for achieving United Nations SDG 3(Good Health and Well-being)

  • Each year a large amount of plant material, cellulose, is deposited on the surface of Planet Earth. What are the natural processes this cellulose undergoes before yielding carbon dioxide, water and other end products?

    Cellulose, the main structural material in plant cell walls, is the Earth’s most abundant organic polymer. When plants die, microorganisms decompose cellulose into carbon dioxide, water, and humus, recycling nutrients back into ecosystems.

    Natural processes undergone by cellulose

    Chemical Degradation:

    Cellulose decomposition is carried out by microbes such as Trichoderma and Clostridium, which secrete cellulase enzymes.

    These enzymes sequentially break cellulose into smaller chains, then cellobiose,and finally glucose for microbial absorption.

    Metabolic Processing: After absorption, microbes metabolize glucose to release energy.

    Oxygen-rich conditions: aerobic microbes convert glucose into carbon dioxide and water.

    Oxygen-poor environments: wetlands, anaerobic microbes and methanogens ferment glucose, producing methane and carbon dioxide.

    Humification:

    Not all plant material fully decomposes; some forms stable humus through reactions with lignin and microbial proteins.

    Humus enriches soil fertility, improves water retention, and acts as an important long-term carbon sink.

    The natural processing of deposited cellulose represents the core operational machinery of the Global Carbon Cycle. Without this systematic microbial and physical breakdown, plant litter would accumulate indefinitely, locking away vital nutrients and choking planetary ecosystems.

  • What is the main task of India’s third moon mission which could not be achieved in its earlier mission? List the countries that have achieved this task. Introduce the subsystems in the spacecraft launched and explain the role of the Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre which contributed to the successful launch from Srihari Kota.

    Chandrayaan-3 mission successfully landed near the lunar South Pole in August 2023. India not only redeemed the partial failure of its predecessor but also became the first nation to reach the Moon’s most scientifically coveted region.

    Main Task of Chandrayaan-3

    To demonstrate Safe and Soft Landing on the Lunar Surface. Chandrayaan-2 experienced a setback with the lander’s failure to achieve a soft landing.

    To demonstrate Rover roving on the moon and

    To conduct in-situ scientific experiments.

    Countries that have achieved moon mission

    The Soviet Union (USSR)

    The United States of America (USA)

    The People’s Republic of China

    The Republic of India

    Japan (Achieved post-Chandrayaan-3 in early 2024 via its SLIM mission)

    Subsystems of the Spacecraft

    Propulsion Module (PM): Carries the Lander Module from launch vehicle injection until it reaches the final 100 km circular polar lunar orbit, where separation occurs.

    Lander Module (LM): To demonstrate soft-landing capabilities at a specific lunar site and deploy the Rover.

    Scientific Payloads:

    ChaSTE: Measures thermal conductivity and surface temperature.

    ILSA: Monitors seismic activity around the landing site.

    RAMBHA Uses Langmuir Probe (LP) to measure near-surface plasma density and temporal variations.

    Laser Retroreflector Array: A passive instrument used for lunar laser ranging studies.

    Rover: Mobility across the lunar surface to conduct chemical analysis of the soil and rocks.

    Scientific Payloads:

    APXS (Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer): Derives the elemental composition of the lunar surface.

    LIBS (Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope): Identifies the chemical elements present in the vicinity of the landing site.

    Role of the ‘Virtual Launch Control Centre’ (VLCC)

    Remote System Checkouts: Allowed ISRO scientists to perform comprehensive remote testing of the LVM3-M4 rocket from Thiruvananthapuram.

    Parallel Monitoring: It acted as a digital twin to the Main Control Centre (MCC) at Sriharikota, providing an additional layer of real-time telemetry analysis and redundancy.

    Decentralized Coordination: Strategic hub that allows experts to monitor the health of the launch vehicle without overcrowding the primary launch site.

    By rectifying previous design limitations, India’s third lunar mission successfully completed its complex soft-landing task, solidifying ISRO’s status in elite global space exploration.


    Nano-technology, Bio-technology and other

  • Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

    Artificial intelligence (AI) is a set of technologies that empowers computers to learn, reason, and perform a variety of advanced tasks in ways that used to require human intelligence, such as understanding language, analyzing data, and even providing helpful suggestions.

    AI in clinical diagnosis

    Early diagnosis: AI detects cancers, arrhythmias, and stroke risks early, enabling timely treatment. Eg- IBM Watson for Oncology

    Pattern recognition: AI analyzes patient records to predict diabetes, hypertension, and other diseases across populations. Eg- MadhuNetrAI Program

    Robotic process automation: AI automates billing, authorizations, and record updates, reducing workload and operational costs.

    AI-guided treatment: AI personalizes treatments using genetics, lifestyle, and medical history analysis. Eg- Genetika+ using stem cell technology and AI software to match antidepressants to patients and minimise side effects.

    Enhanced accuracy: AI interprets X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, and ECGs with high precision, reducing diagnostic errors.

    Medical image analysis: AI detects tumours, fractures, and eye diseases from scans with remarkable accuracy. Eg- Google DeepMind Health

    Health monitoring: Wearables track heart rate and activity, supporting preventive healthcare through continuous monitoring. Eg- Fitbit devices.

    Threats to Individual Privacy from AI in Healthcare

    Permanent Risk of Re-identification: Expert states that no anonymized dataset is permanently secure; mathematical advancements constantly improve de-anonymization science.

    Cyber Vulnerabilities: Eg- The 2022 AIIMS attack compromised data of 30 million individuals.

    Predictive Discrimination Harms AI predicts future health risks, potentially leading to workplace or insurance bias.

    Algorithmic Bias and Marginalization AI trained on affluent data may recommend suboptimal care for marginalized groups. Eg- : Amazon’s AI recruitment tool mirrored historical gender bias.

    Secondary use of patient data: Health data collected for treatment may later train AI algorithms without meaningful patient consent.

    Corporate surveillance: AI wearables monitoring vitals and behavior may enable profiling and commercial manipulation.

    While AI offers unprecedented breakthroughs in diagnostic accuracy, its clinical deployment must be balanced with absolute data protection.

  • Discuss several ways in which microorganisms can help in meeting the current fuel shortage.

    Microorganisms are microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, archaea, and microalgae that can break down organic matter and produce useful energy compounds. Due to these capabilities, they are becoming important for sustainable energy production and the global clean energy transition.

    Ways Microorganisms Help in Meeting Fuel Shortage

    Bioethanol: Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis ferment sugars and agricultural waste into ethanol. India achieved 10% ethanol blending in 2022 and targets 20% (E20) by 2025-26.

    Biodiesel: Microalgae such as Chlorella and Dunaliella produce lipid-rich biomass, which is converted into biodiesel through transesterification.

    Biogas through Anaerobic Digestion: Methanogens decompose sewage, food waste, and cow dung to produce methane-rich biogas. Eg- India’s GOBAR-dhan scheme.

    Biohydrogen Production: Certain photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria can split water or organic compounds to release Hydrogen gas, the cleanest burning fuel.

    Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs): Bacteria break down organic waste in wastewater and release electrons, generating electricity while simultaneously treating the wastewater.

    Biobutanol Production: Species like Clostridium acetobutylicum produce butanol through ABE (Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol) fermentation. Biobutanol is considered superior to ethanol.

    Syngas Fermentation: Acetogenic bacteria can convert synthesis gas (CO and H2 from industrial emissions or biomass gasification) into liquid fuels like ethanol and acetic acid.

    Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR): Microbes are injected into depleted oil wells where they produce surfactants and gases that decrease oil viscosity.

    For a country like India, which imports over 80% of its crude oil, scaling up microbial fuel technologies is essential for achieving Urja Atmanirbharta (Energy Self-reliance) and meeting the Panchamrit targets for net-zero emissions.

  • What are asteroids? How real is the threat of them causing extinction of life? What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe?

    Asteroids are rocky, airless remnants from the early formation of the solar system, primarily orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter (asteroid belt). Some asteroids, known as Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), have orbits that bring them close to Earth, raising concerns about impact hazards.

    Key facts about asteroids

    Types –

    C-type (carbonaceous, most common)

    S-type (silicaceous)

    M-type (metal-rich)

    The total mass of all the asteroids combined is less than that of Earth’s Moon.

    Threat from asteroids

    Historical Evidence – The Chicxulub asteroid impact (~66 million years ago) led to the extinction of dinosaurs.

    Probability Assessment

    Extinction-level asteroids (>10 km) are extremely rare

    City or regional-scale impacts (50-300 m) are more frequent and pose serious human and economic risks.

    Current Scientific Consensus

    Low probability, high impact risk.

    No known large asteroid is on a confirmed collision course with Earth in the foreseeable future.

    No global policy framework or convention to prevent asteroid impact

    Strategies Developed to Prevent or Mitigate Asteroid Impact

    Detection and Tracking – Ground- and space-based surveys continuously monitor NEOs.

    Kinetic Impact Deflection – A spacecraft collides with the asteroid to slightly alter its trajectory. Demonstrated successfully by NASA’s DART mission (2022).

    Gravity Tractor – A spacecraft hovers near the asteroid, using mutual gravitational attraction to gradually change its path.

    Nuclear Deflection (Last Resort) – Use of a nuclear device near (not on) the asteroid to vaporise surface material.

    NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, accurately characterizes the orbits of all known near-Earth objects, predicts their close approaches with Earth

    The International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN) – UN-endorsed, global collaboration of over 60 scientific institutions that detects, tracks, and characterizes Near-Earth Objects (NEOs).

    United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) has recognised asteroid impact hazards as a global risk transcending national boundaries.

    While extinction-level impacts are extremely rare, the consequences would be catastrophic, justifying sustained vigilance.

  • The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.

    As per the report of the Global Commission on the Economics of Water, the world’s water systems are under “unprecedented stress” and the demand for fresh water will outstrip supply by 40% by 2030.

    Global freshwater Crisis

    4.4 billion people lack access to safe drinking water

    703 million people have no access to clean drinking water.

    Agriculture consumes 70% of the world’s freshwater

    India

    4% of the world’s freshwater resources

    600 million Indians experience water scarcity. (NITI Aayog)

    By 2030, 700 million people could be displaced due to water shortages (UNICEF, 2025)

    Global water crisis could result in losses of up to $8 trillion over the next 25 years (Global Commission on the Economics of Water, 2024)

    Alternative Technologies That Can Solve the Freshwater Crisis

    Desalination Technologies to convert seawater/brackish water into potable water.

    Wastewater Recycling & Reuse through Membrane Bioreactors (MBR), tertiary treatment and advanced oxidation.

    Atmospheric Water Harvesting using condensation (cooling below dew point).

    Solar Distillation for low-cost, off-grid evaporation-condensation.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) using recharge wells, percolation tanks and treated wastewater.

    Fog & Dew Harvesting in coastal and high-elevation areas.

    Smart Irrigation Technologies (drip, soil moisture sensors) to reduce agricultural water demand.

    Precision Leak Detection Systems using IoT to minimise distribution losses.

    Rainwater Harvesting Systems integrated with rooftops, storage tanks and recharge pits.

    Floating Solar + Desal Units for dual energy-water generation.

    Three Technologies With Key Merits and Demerits

    Atmospheric Water Harvesting (AWH) – Eg – Source Hydropanels deployed in Ladakh schools.

    Merits:

    Decentralized, off-grid water access for remote areas.

    No reliance on groundwater or rainfall.

    Scalable from household to community systems.

    Demerits:

    Low yield in low-humidity climates.

    High per-litre cost for advanced AWH systems.

    Requires maintenance of filters/desiccants.

    Wastewater Recycling & Reuse – Eg – Singapore’s NEWater, Nagpur’s Bhandewadi recycling plant.

    Merits:

    Reduces pressure on freshwater sources by closing the loop.

    Low energy requirement compared to desalination.

    Ensures year-round supply, even in dry regions.

    Demerits:

    Public resistance to potable reuse (“yuck factor”).

    Risk of contamination if systems are poorly maintained.

    High initial investment for advanced tertiary treatment.

    Desalination using Reverse Osmosis & Thermal Distillation– Eg – Israel’s Sorek RO plant, India’s Minjur RO plant (Chennai).

    Merits:

    Large and climate-independent supply from oceans.

    Useful for coastal megacities facing groundwater depletion. Eg- Mumbai

    Continuous and reliable output even in droughts.

    Demerits:

    High energy consumption, increasing carbon footprint.

    Brine discharge harms marine ecosystems.

    High capital and operating cost for poorer regions.

    A portfolio approach, not a single technology, will determine long-term water security.