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Subject: Science and Technology

  • ISRO and Japanese scientists review mission Chandrayaan 5 preparation

    Why in the News?

    An ISRO–JAXA delegation reviewed preparations for Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX), India’s joint lunar mission with Japan, targeted for 2028. ISRO also informed Parliament that the Crew and Service Modules for the Gaganyaan-1 uncrewed mission are nearing completion.

    What is Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX)?

    • Full Name: Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX).
    • A joint lunar mission of ISRO and JAXA.
    • Target Launch: 2028.
    • Objective: Explore and study water and water ice at the Moon’s south polar region.

    Mission Components

    • Lander: Developed by ISRO.
    • Rover: Developed by JAXA.
    • Launch Vehicle: Japan’s H3 Rocket.
    • Scientific Payloads:
      • NASA: Neutron Spectrometer.
      • ESA: Mass Spectrometer.
    • Mission Duration: Around 100 days.
    • Scientific Instruments: 7 across the lander and rover.

    Mission Objectives

    • Detect and analyse surface and subsurface water ice.
    • Study the lunar south pole.
    • Support future human lunar exploration and resource utilisation.

    What is the status of Gaganyaan-1?

    • Gaganyaan-1 is an uncrewed precursor mission.
    • Crew and Service Modules are in the final stages of assembly and testing.
    • Intended to validate: Crew Module, Service Module, Crew Escape System, Life Support Systems
    • Launch has been delayed, and a revised schedule is yet to be announced.

    Significance

    • Strengthens India–Japan space cooperation.
    • Demonstrates multi-agency collaboration involving ISRO, JAXA, NASA, and ESA.
    • Advances lunar science and technologies for future exploration.
    • Supports India’s long-term human spaceflight ambitions under Gaganyaan.

    Challenges

    • Budget and resource constraints across multiple space missions.
    • Integration of ISRO’s lander with JAXA’s rover.
    • Dependence on Japan’s H3 launch vehicle.
    • Delays in the Gaganyaan programme.

    Chandrayaan Missions

    • Chandrayaan-1 (2008): Confirmed the presence of water molecules on the Moon.
    • Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Orbiter remains operational; lander hard-landed.
    • Chandrayaan-3 (2023): India became the first country to achieve a soft landing near the lunar south pole.
    • Chandrayaan-4: Planned Indian mission for lunar sample return.
    • Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX): Joint ISRO–JAXA mission to explore lunar polar water ice.

    Gaganyaan Programme

    • India’s first human spaceflight mission.
    • Objective: Demonstrate the capability to send Indian astronauts to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and return them safely.
    • Implemented by ISRO.

    ISRO’s Major International Collaborations

    • JAXA: Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX).
    • NASA: NISAR mission and Chandrayaan payloads.
    • ESA: Scientific payloads and deep-space support.

    [2025] Consider the following space missions:
    I. Axiom-4
    II. SpaDeX
    III. Gaganyaan
    How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] All the three

    [D] None

  • ISRO’s NavIC System Can No Longer Provide Standalone Navigation Services

    Why in the News?

    For the first time, the Government has admitted in Parliament that India’s NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) cannot currently provide standalone positioning services, as only 3 operational satellites are available for navigation, while at least 4 satellites are required.

    What is the issue?

    • IRNSS-1F, launched in March 2016, completed its mission life and its onboard atomic clock failed, reducing the operational navigation satellites.
    • At present, only IRNSS-1B, IRNSS-1I, and NVS-01 are providing Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) services.
    • As a result, NavIC cannot independently provide positioning services, though its timing service remains functional.

    What is NavIC?

    • NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) is India’s regional satellite navigation system, developed by ISRO under the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
    • It provides Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) services over:
      • India, and
      • up to 1,500 km beyond its borders.
    • The original constellation was designed with 7 satellites.

    Why are four satellites necessary?

    • A navigation receiver determines its position through trilateration.
    • At least 4 satellites are required to accurately calculate Latitude, Longitude, Altitude, and Time correction
    • Without four operational satellites, standalone navigation becomes unreliable.

    Does this affect users?

    • No major impact on most users.
    • Smartphones, aircraft, ships and vehicles use multi-constellation GNSS receivers, combining signals from GPS (USA), Galileo (European Union), GLONASS (Russia), BeiDou (China), and NavIC (India)
    • Hence, navigation services continue without significant disruption.

    Current status

    • Standalone positioning: Not available.
    • Timing service: Functional.
    • Emergency message broadcasting: Functional.
    • Armed Forces: Continue using NavIC as part of a multi-constellation GNSS framework.

    Future roadmap

    • NVS-03 is ready for launch.
    • NVS-04 and NVS-05 are in advanced stages of development.
    • These satellites are expected to restore NavIC’s independent navigation capability.

    Significance of NavIC

    • Enhances strategic autonomy by reducing dependence on foreign navigation systems.
    • Supports: Defence operations, Disaster management, Maritime navigation, Aviation, Railways, Road transport, Precision agriculture, and Surveying and mapping
    • Provides secure and reliable navigation during emergencies or geopolitical conflicts.

    [2023] Which one of the following countries has its own Satellite Navigation System?

    [A] Australia

    [B] Canada

    [C] Israel

    [D] Japan

  • The IACS and the making of modern Indian science

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS) marked its 150th anniversary this year. It was established on 29 July 1876 as India’s first national institution dedicated to scientific research by Indians.

    What is the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS)?

    1. Founding: The IACS was established on 29 July 1876 in Calcutta by Mahendralal Sircar, as the country’s first institution dedicated to scientific research led by Indians.
    2. Founding vision: Sircar proposed the IACS in an 1869 article in the Calcutta Journal of Medicine, arguing that scientific education was indispensable for India’s intellectual and societal progress.
    3. Colonial context: Sircar’s founding was a direct response to what he described in 1872 as the colonial government’s failure to “afford any opportunity” or “encouragement to the pursuit of science by the native of this country.”

    How did the IACS produce Raman’s discovery of the Raman effect?

    1. Raman’s introduction to IACS: After joining the Accountant General’s Office in Calcutta in 1907, C V Raman discovered the IACS and was given open access to its laboratories by Amrit Lal Sircar, the founder’s son.
    2. Dual life as scientist and officer: For nearly a decade, Raman worked at the IACS laboratory in the early mornings and evenings while serving as a government officer during the day, continuing even after he became Palit Professor of Physics at Calcutta University in 1917.
    3. The discovery: Raman made his most celebrated discovery, the Raman effect, in the IACS laboratories, announcing it to the world on 28 February 1928.
    4. Nobel recognition: The discovery earned Raman the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930, making him the first Asian scientist to win a Nobel Prize in the sciences.

    What does IACS’s history reveal about colonial-era Indian science?

    1. Institutional gap Sircar identified: Sircar’s founding case rested on the argument that Indians needed their own institution because the colonial state had not created one, showing that India’s earliest scientific self-reliance was born out of exclusion rather than official support.
    2. Vision fulfilled: Raman’s Nobel Prize, won through work conducted at an institution founded and funded by Indians, is presented as the fulfilment of Sircar’s original claim that such an institution could produce discoveries of international significance without depending on colonial institutional support.

    Conclusion

    The IACS’s 150-year history runs from Mahendralal Sircar’s 1876 founding, born of colonial neglect of Indian scientific talent, to C V Raman’s 1930 Nobel Prize, won through research conducted entirely within that institution. The anniversary is presented as a reminder that India’s earliest scientific self-reliance predates independence by seven decades.

    Back2Basics:

    1. National Science Day: India observes National Science Day on 28 February each year to mark the anniversary of the announcement of the Raman effect.
    2. Present role: IACS continues to function as an autonomous research institute under the Department of Science and Technology, focused on basic sciences.

  • On antibiotics, problem isn’t just overprescribing

    Why in the News?

    A new global study in The Lancet Public Health has again found that India consumes too many broad-spectrum “watch” antibiotics and too few first-line “access” antibiotics, with total antibiotic consumption above the optimal target. The deeper problem is not physician irrationality but the systemic conditions that push doctors toward broader antibiotics in the first place.

    What does the Lancet study find about India’s antibiotic use?

    1. Consumption above target: India’s antibiotic consumption is higher than the optimal target identified in the study.
    2. Skewed drug mix: India’s antibiotic mix is skewed toward “watch” category broad-spectrum drugs that should ideally be reserved for more serious infections, rather than first-line “access” antibiotics.
    3. Documented pattern: This overuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics has been repeatedly documented over the past two decades through surveillance studies, hospital audits and national AMR programmes.

    Why do doctors keep prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics despite knowing the risk?

    1. Late presentation: Doctors often prescribe antibiotics before a definitive diagnosis is available because patients present late in their illness.
    2. Diagnostic unreliability: Limited or unreliable diagnostic facilities mean treatment decisions cannot always wait for confirmatory tests.
    3. Healthcare-associated infection risk: Inadequate infection prevention and control in healthcare facilities increases the likelihood of healthcare-associated infections, pushing clinicians toward broader-spectrum agents from the outset.
    4. The reframing: In the article’s own terms, antibiotics are often used to compensate for systemic weaknesses in diagnosis and infection control, not administered out of irrational prescribing habits.

    What structural reforms does the article call for?

    1. Infection prevention first: Better water, sanitation and hygiene, wider vaccine coverage, and sustained investment in infection prevention and control programmes in hospitals would reduce the burden of infections that require antibiotics at all.
    2. Diagnostic capacity: India has begun building this through the National Health Mission, the Free Diagnostics Service Initiative and the National Essential Diagnostics List, but laboratory quality, accreditation and turnaround time still need improvement.
    3. Stewardship training: Clinicians need training in antimicrobial stewardship and evidence-based prescribing, alongside community education that antibiotics do not treat viral infections.

    Has India actually made no progress, as the “overprescribing” framing implies?

    1. Reforms already underway: India has established a National Action Plan on AMR, expanded surveillance through the National Centre for Disease Control and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), introduced antimicrobial stewardship initiatives, and regulated fixed-dose combinations.
    2. Scale argument: A country with nearly one-fifth of the world’s population and one of its largest public health systems cannot transform antibiotic use overnight, and progress should be judged by the direction of ongoing reforms, not only current consumption levels.

    Conclusion

    India’s antibiotic overuse is a systemic problem rooted in late diagnosis, weak infection control and unreliable laboratories, not a simple failure of physician judgment that fewer prescriptions alone would fix. What must change is investment in diagnostics and infection prevention capacity, since asking doctors to prescribe less without fixing those underlying gaps risks costing lives rather than curbing resistance.

    Back2Basics:

    Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

    1. Definition: AMR occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites evolve to resist the drugs designed to kill them, making infections harder to treat.
    2. India’s National Action Plan: India’s National Action Plan on AMR, coordinated by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, covers surveillance, infection prevention, stewardship, research and international collaboration.
    3. Surveillance network: The National Centre for Disease Control and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) run India’s national AMR surveillance network across sentinel hospital sites.
    4. WHO classification: The WHO’s AWaRe classification divides antibiotics into Access (first-line, low resistance risk), Watch (broader-spectrum, higher resistance risk) and Reserve (last-resort) categories.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2014] Can overuse and the availability of antibiotics without doctor’s prescription be the contributors to the emergence of drug resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

    Linkage: The PYQ examines antimicrobial resistance caused by antibiotic misuse and the mechanisms needed for its monitoring and control. The article extends the PYQ by explaining that irrational antibiotic use is driven by systemic gaps in diagnostics, infection control and stewardship, and highlights ongoing AMR reforms in India.

  • ‘Virtual magnet’ claims reveal why EVs need their rare-earths

    Why in the News?

    A Bengaluru startup, Vimag Labs, has claimed to replace rare-earth permanent magnets in electric motors with software-controlled “virtual” magnets built from copper coils and electromagnets. The claim describes a decades-old electromagnet design rather than a genuine breakthrough, and that it does not resolve the efficiency, cost and rare-earth dependency problems facing India’s electric vehicle (EV) motor supply chain.

    What is the startup actually claiming to have built?

    1. The claim: Vimag Labs says it removes permanent magnets from a motor, replaces them with copper coils, and uses software to generate magnetic fields inside the motor.
    2. What this technically is: Passing current through copper coils wound around a ferromagnet to temporarily create a magnetic field is an electromagnet, a design used in large hydroelectric, thermal and nuclear power plant generators for more than 135 years.
    3. No novelty in the mechanism: The software in this design does not create magnetism; it only regulates how much current flows through the electromagnets, controlling the strength and direction of the existing magnetic field.

    Why do permanent magnets remain more efficient than electromagnets in EV motors?

    1. One-step versus multi-step process: A permanent magnet establishes a magnetic field in a single step with no additional electrical energy, while an electromagnet requires the field to be established and continuously modulated by software, consuming energy at every step.
    2. Energy losses compound: Electromagnet-based motors face core losses in the ferromagnetic core, resistance losses in copper conductors, and switching and conduction losses in electronic switches, making them unlikely to match a permanent magnet motor’s efficiency.
    3. Efficiency drives EV range: Every 0.1% increase in motor drive efficiency improves range for a given battery size, since the battery pack is the costliest and heaviest component of an EV, which is why permanent magnet synchronous motors dominate the EV market today.

    What is India’s underlying rare-earth dependency problem that this claim does not solve?

    1. No alternative has matched permanent magnets: BMW and Renault have tried electrically excited motors, and Tesla’s first Model S used an induction motor in 2012, but neither matched permanent magnet efficiency.
    2. Other alternatives face their own limits: The switched reluctance motor (SRM), which uses neither permanent magnets nor copper coils in its rotor, avoids rare-earth dependency but suffers from noisier, less efficient, spurt-like torque delivery, an approach Honda and Hitachi Astemo are still trying to refine.
    3. Conclusion of the constraint: Efficiency, starting torque capability and maximum achievable speed remain the constraints that have kept non-permanent-magnet motors out of mainstream EVs, meaning India’s EV motor supply chain still depends on rare-earth magnets regardless of this claim.

    Conclusion

    The Bengaluru startup’s “virtual magnet” is an established electromagnet design, not a new way to escape rare-earth dependency, since electromagnets remain less efficient than permanent magnets for the reasons physics has established for decades. India’s EV motor strategy must therefore continue to treat rare-earth and critical mineral access as a supply chain problem to be solved directly, rather than expect a software fix to remove the need for these magnets.

    Back2Basics:

    Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

    1. What they are: Rare Earth Elements are a set of 17 metallic elements used in permanent magnets, electronics, and clean energy technologies, valued for their magnetic and conductive properties.
    2. China’s dominance: China holds the largest share of global rare earth mining and processing capacity, giving it significant leverage over EV motor and electronics supply chains worldwide.
    3. India’s response: India launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) in 2025 to build a framework for self-reliance in critical minerals, including rare earths, reducing import dependency for strategic sectors such as EVs and electronics.

    Back2Basics

    Role of Permanent magnets in Electric Vehicles:

    They are vital for electric vehicles because they provide high energy efficiency, maximum torque density, and compact motor sizing. They are primarily used in the main traction motor, power steering, and auxiliary systems.

    Core Functions in EV Motors

    1. Creating Constant Fields: They produce a strong, permanent magnetic field without needing extra electricity.
    2. Energy Conversion: They interact with electrical coils to turn electric energy into physical motion that spins the wheels.
    3. Regenerative Braking: They help capture energy back when the car slows down

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2026] Which of the following statements about Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and Critical Minerals is/are correct?

    1. Modern technological innovations including Artificial Intelligence, robotics and space exploration extensively utilise Rare Earth Elements (REEs).

    2. China has the highest share in mining of REEs followed by India.

    3. The Government of India launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) in 2025 to establish a robust framework for self reliance in the critical mineral sector.

    4. Rare Earth Elements are a set of 13 metallic elements.

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4

    (d) 1, 2 and 4″

    Answer: (a)

  • Celebrating 25 Years of the Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT)

    Why in News?

    The Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT) at Hanle, Ladakh, completed 25 years of operation. The occasion was marked by a conference highlighting its scientific achievements and future expansion plans.

    Key Highlights

    • Location: Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), Hanle, Ladakh (4,517 m).
    • Managed by: Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • First Light: 26 September 2000; dedicated to the nation in 2001.
    • Named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
    • Operated remotely from Bengaluru via INSAT-3B since 2001.

    Why is Hanle Important?

    • Over 250 clear nights annually.
    • Very low atmospheric water vapour and minimal light pollution.
    • Ideal for optical and near-infrared astronomy.
    • Protected under the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve.

    Major Scientific Contributions

    • Studies of gamma-ray bursts, comets, exoplanets, supernovae, variable stars, galaxies, and active galactic nuclei (AGN).
    • Contributed to the discovery of TRAPPIST-1b.

    Key Instruments

    • HFOSC – Optical camera and spectrograph.
    • uTIRSPEC – Near-infrared spectrometer.
    • HESP – High-resolution Echelle spectrograph.

    Future Plans

    The Union Budget announced:

    • 3.7-m Upgraded Himalayan Chandra Telescope (UHCT).
    • 13.7-m National Large Optical-Infrared Telescope (NLOT) at Hanle.

    Prelims Facts

    • HCT: 2-m optical telescope at Hanle, Ladakh.
    • Nodal Agency: Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA).
    • Administrative Ministry: Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • Hanle Dark Sky Reserve: India’s first Dark Sky Reserve.

    [2016] With reference to ‘Astrosat’,’ the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.
    2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • Viruses don’t respect borders: the case for timely, fair global vaccine access for zoonotic outbreaks

    Why in the News?

    An International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) scientist has argued that timely and fair global vaccine access for zoonotic outbreaks, such as Ebola, Nipah and hantavirus, requires academia-industry partnerships and a shared risk funding model. This is because such vaccines are not commercially attractive to manufacturers.

    Why are zoonotic outbreak vaccines commercially unattractive?

    1. Small, unpredictable markets: Ebola, Nipah and hantavirus outbreaks are episodic and geographically concentrated, giving manufacturers no stable, predictable market to justify sustained investment.
    2. High development cost, low return: Vaccine development costs remain similar regardless of market size, so a vaccine with a small addressable market offers manufacturers a poor return relative to vaccines for widespread diseases.
    3. Outbreak timing mismatch: Vaccine demand spikes only during an active outbreak, while development must happen years in advance, a mismatch that discourages manufacturers from investing ahead of demonstrated demand.

    What would a shared risk funding model change?

    1. Risk redistribution: A shared risk funding model spreads the financial risk of vaccine development across academia, industry and public funders, rather than leaving it entirely on a manufacturer’s commercial judgment.
    2. Academia-industry partnership: Academic institutions like ICGEB can carry early stage research risk, handing over a de-risked candidate for industry to scale, lowering the barrier for private investment.
    3. Access consequence: A funding model that does not depend on commercial viability alone can keep resulting vaccines priced for equitable global access rather than for cost recovery in a niche market.

    Conclusion

    The central idea is that zoonotic outbreak vaccines fail a commercial viability test that has nothing to do with their public health importance. A shared risk funding model, built on academia-industry partnership, is the mechanism proposed to close that gap between epidemic risk and market incentive.

    Back2Basics

    International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB): An intergovernmental organisation with a component in New Delhi, conducting research in genetic engineering and biotechnology, including vaccine and infectious disease research.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines?

    Linkage: The PYQ examines the scientific principles of vaccine development and the challenges in developing vaccines for emerging infectious diseases. The article explains why vaccines for zoonotic diseases require shared-risk funding and academia-industry partnerships to overcome weak commercial incentives and ensure equitable access.

  • ICMR-NICPR validates oral therapy SHetA2 to block HPV’s cancer causing proteins

    Why in News?

    The Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research (ICMR-NICPR) has validated an oral small molecule therapy, SHetA2, that blocks Human Papillomavirus (HPV)’s cancer causing proteins, potentially treating pre-cancerous and cancerous cervical lesions. The molecule has been transferred to Emcure for larger human trials.

      Key Highlights

      1. Therapy: SHetA2, an oral small molecule drug.
      2. Mechanism: Blocks HPV oncoproteins (E6 and E7), which drive cervical cancer development.
      3. Target: Designed to treat pre-cancerous (CIN) and cancerous cervical lesions.
      4. Validating body: ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research (ICMR-NICPR).
      5. Next stage: Technology transferred to Emcure for advanced human clinical trials.
      6. Significance: Represents a potential non-surgical, oral treatment for HPV-related cervical disease.

      What is Human Papillomavirus (HPV)?

      1. HPV is a common DNA virus that infects the skin and mucous membranes.
      2. It is transmitted mainly through sexual contact.
      3. Persistent infection with high-risk HPV types, especially HPV-16 and HPV-18, is the leading cause of cervical cancer.
      4. HPV is also associated with cancers of the anus, vulva, vagina, penis and oropharynx.

      How Does SHetA2 Work?

      1. Inhibits the activity of HPV’s E6 and E7 oncoproteins.
      2. Restores the function of tumour suppressor proteins (p53 and Rb), allowing abnormal cells to undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis).
      3. May help prevent progression from pre-cancerous lesions to invasive cervical cancer.

      Significance

      1. Offers a non-invasive oral treatment option for HPV-related cervical lesions.
      2. May reduce the need for surgical procedures in early-stage disease.
      3. Supports India’s efforts to reduce the burden of cervical cancer, one of the most common cancers among women.
      4. Demonstrates the growing role of indigenous biomedical research and public-private collaboration.

      Government Initiatives

      1. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) includes cervical cancer screening.
      2. Introduction of Cervavac, India’s indigenous HPV vaccine, to expand cervical cancer prevention.
      3. Promotion of HPV vaccination, screening and early diagnosis under national health programmes.

      [2021] Consider the following statements:
      1. Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA genomes whereas retroviruses have double-stranded DNA genomes.
      2. Common cold is sometime caused by an adenovirus whereas AIDS is caused by a retrovirus.
      Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 2 only

      [C] Both 1 and 2

      [D] Neither 1 nor 2

    1. All four dengue virus serotypes found co-circulating nationally, ICMR-VRDL study finds

      Why in News?

      A two year Indian Council of Medical Research-Virus Research and Diagnostic Laboratory (ICMR-VRDL) surveillance study finds all four dengue virus serotypes co-circulating nationally, raising hyperendemicity concerns and complicating future vaccine rollout.

        Key Highlights

        1. Study duration: Conducted over two years through nationwide surveillance.
        2. Conducting body: ICMR-Virus Research and Diagnostic Laboratory (VRDL) Network.
        3. Key concern: Simultaneous circulation of all serotypes indicates hyperendemicity, increasing the risk of severe dengue and complicating vaccine strategies.
          • Note: A serotype is a distinct subgroup or variation of a microorganism (such as a bacterium or virus) classified by the specific antigens found on its surface

        What is Dengue?

        1. Dengue is a viral disease caused by the dengue virus (DENV).
        2. It is transmitted by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito (also Aedes albopictus).
        3. The virus has four distinct serotypes: DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4.
        4. Infection with one serotype provides lifelong immunity only against that serotype and temporary protection against the others.

        What is Hyperendemicity?

        1. Hyperendemicity refers to the simultaneous circulation of multiple serotypes of the same pathogen in a region.
        2. It increases the likelihood of secondary infections, which can lead to severe dengue due to Antibody-Dependent Enhancement (ADE).

        About the ICMR-VRDL Network

        • Established by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).
        • Functions as a nationwide network for diagnosis, surveillance and research on viral diseases.
        • Supports early detection and monitoring of emerging and re-emerging viral infections.

        [2017] Consider the following statements:
        1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.
        2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.
        Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

        [A] 1 only

        [B] 2 only

        [C] Both 1 and 2

        [D] Neither 1 nor 2

      1. CBDT issues crypto asset reporting note aligned with OECD framework

        Why in News?

        The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) issued a 198 page guidance note on crypto asset reporting under the Income tax Act, 2025, aligned with the OECD’s Crypto Asset Reporting Framework (CARF).

        Key Highlights

        1. The guidance note runs to 198 pages and is issued under the Income tax Act, 2025.
        2. It aligns India’s crypto asset reporting with the OECD’s Crypto Asset Reporting Framework (CARF).
        3. The framework enables automatic global information exchange on crypto asset holdings starting next year.

         [2016] With reference to ‘Bitcoins’, sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
        1. Bitcoins are tracked by the Central Banks of the countries.
        2. Anyone with a Bitcoin address can send and receive Bitcoins from anyone else with a Bitcoin address.
        3. Online payments can be sent without either side knowing the identity of the other.
        Select the correct answer using the code given below.

        [A] 1 and 2 only

        [B] 2 and 3 only

        [C] 3 only

        [D] 1, 2 and 3