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Subject: Science and Technology

  • China halts export of Rare Earth Magnets

    Why in the News?

    China has suspended exports of a wide range of critical minerals and magnets after US’s tariff embargo.

    What Are Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and RE Magnets?

    • REEs are a group of 17 elements in the periodic table, including Lanthanum (La), Neodymium (Nd), Europium (Eu), and Ytterbium (Yb).
    • Though not rare, they are found in low concentrations, making extraction challenging and costly.
    • Classification:
      • Light REEs (LREEs): Elements 57-63, such as La, Ce, Nd, and Sm.
      • Heavy REEs (HREEs): Elements 64-71, like Gd, Tb, Dy, and Er.
      • Scandium and Yttrium: Classified with HREEs due to similar chemical properties.
    • Rare Earth Magnets are powerful permanent magnets made from elements like Neodymium (Nd), Samarium (Sm), and Dysprosium (Dy).
    • They are far stronger and more efficient than traditional magnets, crucial for high-tech electronic applications.

    Global Supply Chain of REEs:

    • REEs are abundant but difficult to extract economically.
    • China alone dominates, producing 70% of the global supply and controlling 80% of the refining capacity. REEs are primarily mined from China’s Bayan Obo mine.
    • Australia, USA, Brazil, and Russia also contribute, though less significantly.
    • Refining also is largely controlled by China, though other nations are working to build their own refining capabilities to reduce dependency.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:

    1. Monazite is a source of rare earths. 2. Monazite contains thorium. 3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India. 4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • KATRIN Experiment

    Why in the News?

    The KATRIN (Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment) has made a groundbreaking achievement by measuring neutrino mass with a new precision.

    About the KATRIN Experiment:

    • The KATRIN is located at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), specifically on its Campus North site in Karlsruhe, Germany.
    • It is aimed at measuring the mass of the electron antineutrino with sub-eV precision.
    • It has measured the mass of neutrinos by studying the beta decay of tritium, a radioactive form of hydrogen.
    • The mass was inferred by analyzing the energy of the emitted electrons.
    • Technological Setup:
      • A 70-meter-long beamline with a powerful tritium source.
      • A 10-meter-wide spectrometer to measure the energy of emitted electrons with high precision.
    • Key Findings:
      • KATRIN has set a new upper limit for neutrino mass at less than 0.45 eV/c² (8 × 10⁻³⁷ kg), nearly twice as precise as previous measurements from 2022.
      • Data Collection was based on five campaigns from 2019-2021, totalling 250 days of data.

    Neutrinos and Their Properties

    • Neutrinos are extremely light subatomic particles that rarely interact with matter, making them difficult to detect.
    • They are found in cosmic rays and solar radiation.
    • Properties:
      • Mass: Their small mass influences cosmic structure formation, such as galaxies and clusters.
      • Weak Interaction: They interact via the weak nuclear force, allowing them to pass through vast amounts of matter.
    • They are essential in particle reactions and play a key role in galaxy formation and the study of dark matter.

     

    [UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the planning commission as a mega-science project under the 11th Five-year plan. In this context, consider the following statements:

    1.Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.

    2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.

    3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but non-zero mass.

    4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through the human body every second.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only  (b) 1, 2 and 3 only  (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Novel Silicon Photonics Breakthrough

    Why in the News?

    In a major breakthrough, Indian researchers have developed a new type of laser that can be placed directly onto silicon chips, a key component of modern computers.

    What is Silicon Photonics?

    • Silicon photonics is a technology that uses light (photons) instead of electrical signals to transmit data inside computer systems.
    • Light can carry more data at higher speeds with less energy than electricity, making it a promising technology for future computing and data transfer.
    • Traditional silicon chips struggle to produce light, requiring external lasers, which were inefficient and costly.
    • Silicon photonics can significantly enhance data transfer speed and efficiency, benefiting industries like data centers and telecommunications.

    About the Miniaturized Laser Technology

    • Indian researchers have successfully integrated a laser directly onto a silicon chip, eliminating the need for separate lasers.
    • The laser is made using gallium arsenide (where 20% of gallium atoms had been replaced with indium to achieve optimal light emission), which helps silicon emit light, a crucial step since silicon alone cannot produce light efficiently.
    • It uses minimal power, ideal for high-performance, energy-efficient computers.
    • Direct integration reduces costs, making the technology scalable for mass production.
    • This innovation boosts computing power, particularly in data centers where fast data transfer is critical.
    • Efforts are underway to enhance its durability, especially at higher temperatures, for broader industrial use.
    [UPSC 2008] Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?

    (a) Dye laser (b) Gas laser (c) Semiconductor laser (d) Excimer laser

     

  • Real Time LAMP Assay for Early Diagnosis of TB

    Why in the News?

    Researchers from Thiruvananthapuram have developed a cost-effective Real-Time LAMP (rt-LAMP) Assay for early Tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis.

    About the rt-LAMP Assay

    • The rt-LAMP assay (real-time Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification) is a molecular diagnostic test designed to detect TB DNA with high precision.
    • It can detect TB DNA at concentrations as low as 10 copy numbers per microlitre, ensuring early detection even with low bacterial loads.
    • Developed by SCTIMST, Thiruvananthapuram, the rt-LAMP assay uses Syto 16, a fluorescent dye, to monitor DNA amplification in real time, addressing the limitations of traditional LAMP tests.
    • Working Principle:
      • It uses six primers for DNA amplification (compared to two in RT-PCR), enhancing amplification speed.
      • It operates at a single temperature, unlike RT-PCR, making it simpler and more cost-effective.
      • It monitors the amplification process continuously, providing faster results.

    Advantages Offered:

    • High Sensitivity and Specificity: Ensures accurate detection of TB DNA due to the use of six primers.
    • Cost-Effective: Uses affordable fluorescent dyes and primers, reducing diagnostic costs.
    • Speed: Produces results in just 10-20 minutes, faster than traditional tests.
    • Ease of Use: Compatible with existing RT-PCR machines, reducing the need for new infrastructure.
    • High Throughput: Can process 96-384 tests in one run, making it ideal for high-volume settings.
    [UPSC 2007] Which of the following types is used by computed tomography employed for visualization of the internal structure of the human body?

    (a) X-rays (b) Sound Waves (c) Magnetic Resonance (d) Radioisotopes

     

  • The conservation argument for resurrecting dire wolf is not credible

    Why in the news?

    Colossal Biosciences is an American company that combines genetics and conservation in a unique way by bringing back species that have been extinct for thousands of years.

    What is the primary goal of Colossal Biosciences’ de-extinction project?

    Colossal Biosciences is a biotechnology company specializing in de-extinction projects, aiming to revive extinct species through advanced genetic engineering.

    • Woolly Mammoth De-Extinction: Colossal is working to resurrect the woolly mammoth by integrating mammoth genes into the Asian elephant genome using CRISPR technology. The goal is to create a cold-resistant elephant with traits characteristic of the woolly mammoth, such as a thick layer of fat and shaggy hair, to inhabit Arctic tundra regions and potentially combat climate change.
    • Dire Wolf Revival: In a groundbreaking achievement, Colossal announced the birth of three pups—Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi—genetically engineered to resemble the extinct dire wolf. Using DNA from ancient dire wolf remains, scientists edited the genes of modern gray wolves, resulting in animals that exhibit traits such as larger size and distinctive fur color.

    Why do critics question the credibility of reviving extinct species for conservation purposes?

    • Lack of Scientific Proof: The actual success of reviving extinct species like the woolly mammoth has not yet been proven through rigorous peer review or established results.
    • Limited Genetic Editing: The extent of genetic editing in revived species often involves only a small number of genes, leading to incomplete or flawed replicas of the original species. Eg: In the case of the dire wolf, only 20 genes were edited, resulting in what critics describe as just a “strange-looking gray wolf” rather than a true de-extinct species.
    • Ethical Concerns: There are ethical debates over the potential consequences of creating species that may not thrive in the modern environment or might cause unforeseen ecological imbalances. Eg: The introduction of revived species like the woolly mammoth could disrupt current ecosystems in ways that may not be beneficial.

    How can bringing back the woolly mammoth help stop global warming?

    • Restoring Grasslands: The woolly mammoth can help restore Arctic grasslands by grazing on shrubs and plants, which would create open grasslands where permafrost can remain intact. Eg: By grazing, mammoths would prevent the growth of shrubs that trap heat, promoting the return of grasslands that are cooler and better at reflecting sunlight.
    • Slowing Permafrost Melt: Grasslands absorb less heat than shrub forests, helping to keep the permafrost cool. The return of woolly mammoths could help prevent the thawing of permafrost, which releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Eg: Mammoth grazing can keep the ground cooler and slow the thawing of permafrost, thus reducing the release of methane into the atmosphere.
    • Preventing Methane Emissions: As the permafrost melts, it releases large amounts of methane into the atmosphere. Woolly mammoths could help mitigate this by maintaining ecosystems that slow down the permafrost’s thaw. Eg: With mammoths grazing, the tundra could remain cooler and less prone to releasing methane.
    • Enhancing Carbon Sequestration: Grasslands are more effective at absorbing carbon than shrubbery or forested areas. By converting tundra back into grasslands, woolly mammoths could enhance carbon sequestration and help store more carbon in the soil. Eg: Woolly mammoths could help re-establish healthy grasslands, which would act as carbon sinks, absorbing more CO2 from the atmosphere.

    What is India’s situation in advanced genetic engineering?

    • Advancements in Agricultural Biotechnology: India has developed a structured regulatory framework for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) under the Environment (Protection) Act, of 1986. Eg: Recently, India initiated trials of CRISPR/Cas9-modified rice varieties in test fields, reflecting a surge in scientific research and innovation in plant genome editing.
    • Pioneering Genomic Research and Precision Medicine: India’s Genome India Project aims to sequence at least 10,000 Indian genomes to develop predictive diagnostic indicators for various diseases. Eg: Institutions like the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB) have been instrumental in understanding genetic epidemiology, including the development of the FELUDA COVID-19 test based on CRISPR technology.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Ethical and Regulatory Frameworks: India should establish robust regulations and ethical guidelines for genetic engineering, particularly for gene-editing technologies like CRISPR, to ensure safety and sustainability in areas such as agriculture and medicine.
    • Promote Collaborative Research and Innovation: Encouraging partnerships between academic institutions, the private sector, and the government will help accelerate research and application of advanced genetic technologies, positioning India as a global leader in biotechnology innovation.

    Mains PYQ: 

    [UPSC 2024] What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe [mass extinction of life]?

    Linkage: The article says we should focus more on saving the species that are alive today, rather than trying to bring back extinct ones. The debate about de-extinction raises the question of whether it’s better to spend resources on protecting current species instead.

  • Three Gorges Antarctic Eye Telescope

    Why in the news?

    China has unveiled the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye telescope in Antarctica.

    About the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye Telescope

    • The Three Gorges Antarctic Eye is a 3.2m wide radio/millimetre-wave telescope located at China’s Zhongshan Station in Antarctica.
    • It was developed by China Three Gorges University (CTGU) and Shanghai Normal University (SHNU).
    • This telescope can detect radio waves and millimeter waves, types of invisible light, allowing scientists to study phenomena like neutral hydrogen and ammonia molecules, essential for understanding star formation and gas movement in space.
    • Unlike most telescopes, it works with both radio and millimeter waves, providing a more comprehensive view of space.
    • It is built in one of the harshest environments on Earth, with operating temperatures below -60°C and strong winds, making construction particularly challenging.
    [UPSC 2015] The term ‘IndARC’, sometimes seen in the news, is the name of:

    (a) an indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence

    (b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim

    (c) a scientific establishment set up by India in Antarctic region

    (d) India’s underwater observatory to scientifically study the Arctic region

     

  • Preliminary Findings of the Genome India Project

    Why in the News?

    The preliminary findings of Genome India Project, based on the whole genome sequencing of 10,074 healthy and unrelated Indians from 85 populations across the country, were published recently.

    About Genome India Project

    • The Genome India Project was launched in January 2020 to map the genetic diversity of India’s population.
    • It is a collaborative project supported and funded by the Department of Biotechnology, GoI, involving multiple institutions across the country.
    • Objectives:
      • Decode the genetic diversity of India’s population through large-scale genome sequencing.
      • Create an exhaustive catalog of genetic variations, including common, low-frequency, rare, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and structural variations.
      • Develop a reference haplotype structure for Indians, which can be used to impute missing genetic variation in future studies.
      • Design genome-wide arrays for research and diagnostics at an affordable cost.
      • Establish a biobank for DNA and plasma collected for future research use.
    • The Genome India Database, which houses the genetic data, is now available to researchers worldwide and is stored at the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) in Faridabad, Haryana.

    Preliminary findings of the Study

    • The project genotyped 10,074 individuals from 85 populations, including 32 tribal and 53 non-tribal groups across India.
    • Blood samples were collected from around 20,000 individuals, with DNA samples from 10,074 individuals subjected to whole genome sequencing.
    • A total of 180 million genetic variants were identified, of which 130 million are in non-sex chromosomes (22 autosomes) and 50 million are in sex chromosomes X and Y.
    • Variant Significance:
      • Variants associated with diseases.
      • Rare variants.
      • Variants unique to India or specific communities.
    [UPSC 2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to

    (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing

    (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

    (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression

    (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cell

     

  • Iron inside the Sun is more opaque than expected

    Why in the News?

    Recent findings have revealed that iron’s opacity inside the Sun may be much higher than previously predicted, challenging current solar models.

    Iron Inside the Sun:

    • Iron makes up approximately 0.14% of the Sun’s mass, which is significantly less than hydrogen (~74%) and helium (~24%).
    • Despite its small percentage, iron plays a crucial role in the Sun’s opacity. In the Sun, opacity influences how energy moves from the core to the surface.
    • The higher the opacity, the more energy is trapped, impacting the Sun’s temperature, density, and fusion rates.

    Highlights of the New Study:

    • A 2025 study published in Physical Review Letters revealed that iron’s opacity in the Sun’s interior is 30-400% higher than previously predicted by models.
    • Researchers exposed a thin iron sample to X-rays and used spectrometers to measure the shadow cast by the sample.
    • By analyzing how strongly the iron absorbed the radiation, they were able to infer the element’s opacity.
    • Significance:
      • This discovery has important implications for how solar models are constructed.
      • By correcting the opacity of iron, models of the Sun’s temperature profile, fusion rates, and energy distribution may need to be revised.
      • This will lead to a more accurate understanding of stellar behaviour and energy transfer.

    Back2Basics: Composition of the Sun

    • The Sun primarily comprises hydrogen and helium, but other elements such as oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron also play significant roles.

    Element

    Composition by Mass (%)

    Key Role
    Hydrogen (H) 74% The primary fuel for nuclear fusion in the Sun’s core. It undergoes fusion to form helium, releasing energy that powers the Sun.
    Helium (He) 24% A byproduct of hydrogen fusion, helium helps maintain the Sun’s stability and supports continued fusion processes.
    Oxygen (O) ~0.8% Oxygen contributes to the Sun’s opacity, assisting in the transport of energy within the star. It also plays a role in nucleosynthesis, where heavier elements are formed in the Sun’s core.
    Carbon (C) ~0.3% Carbon is involved in nucleosynthesis and plays a significant role in determining the Sun’s opacity and energy transport mechanisms.
    Neon (Ne) ~0.2% Neon is found in the Sun’s atmosphere and is involved in the absorption of radiation, affecting the Sun’s energy output and behavior.
    Iron (Fe) ~0.14% Although small in mass, iron significantly impacts the Sun’s opacity, scattering and absorbing radiation, which influences energy transfer. Iron’s opacity affects the Sun’s temperature, density, and fusion rates.

     

    [UPSC 2002] Which one of the following statements is correct with reference to our solar system?

    (a) The Earth is the densest of all the planets in our solar system

    (b) The predominant element in the composition of Earth is silicon

    (c) The Sun contains 75 per cent of the mass of the solar system

    (d) The diameter of the Sun is 190 times that of the Earth

     

  • ESA’s Biomass Mission

    Why in the News?

    The European Space Agency (ESA) is preparing to launch Biomass Mission to map the world’s forests and enhance our understanding of their crucial role in the global carbon cycle.

    ESA's Biomass Mission

    About the Biomass Mission by ESA

    • The ESA will launch the Biomass mission on April 29, 2025, aboard the Vega C rocket from French Guiana.
    • The mission aims to map the world’s forests, gathering data on their role in the carbon cycle and how they change over time.
    • It will be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at around 666 km, optimizing sunlight for observations.
    • It is the 7th mission in ESA’s Earth Explorer Program, focusing on data related to Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, and land surface.

    Features of the Biomass Mission:

    • Biomass uses a P-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor (70 cm frequency), capable of penetrating forest canopies to measure carbon storage in trees and the forest floor.
    • It will be the first satellite to use this cutting-edge P-band SAR technology, offering unprecedented forest biomass data.
    • Equipped with a 12-meter antenna, the satellite will deploy upon launch to conduct broad Earth observations.
    • It will create 3D images of forests, from canopy to roots, providing detailed insights into forest health and carbon storage.

    Significance of the Biomass Mission:

    • The mission will fill critical gaps in forest biomass and height data, improving understanding of forests’ role in the carbon cycle and climate change.
    • Biomass will measure carbon storage in forests and track changes due to deforestation and human activity.
    • The mission’s data will aid climate change mitigation strategies by tracking carbon fluxes between forests and the atmosphere.
    • It will support environmental monitoring, assist policymakers, and contribute to global climate change strategies.
    [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

    The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in

    1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.

    2. predicting the onset of monsoons.

    3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3

     

  • [pib] Cu-Phen Metallo-Nanozymes and its Applications

    Why in the News?

    Researchers from the CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), Chennai has developed a new nanozyme, Cu-Phen, using a catalyst-by-design strategy. A nanozyme is a type of synthetic enzyme made from nanomaterials (extremely tiny particles) that can mimic the function of natural enzymes in biological systems.

    About the Metallo-Nanozymes 

    • Cu-Phen (Copper-Phenylalanine) is a type of metallo-nanozyme developed by Indian researchers.
    • It is a synthetic enzyme that mimics the functions of natural enzymes in the body, particularly in controlling the flow of energy at the cellular level.
    • It is made by combining copper ions (Cu²⁺) with phenylalanine, an amino acid, using a special design method called “catalyst-by-design”.
    • It forms a self-assembled nano-structure with a well-defined active site, which is where the enzyme’s function occurs.
    • This structure helps Cu-Phen control the electron transfer process, which is important for many biological functions.
    • Unlike traditional nanozymes, which often have poorly defined active sites, Cu-Phen has a precisely structured active site, allowing it to work more efficiently like natural enzymes in the body.
    • Cu-Phen interacts with cytochrome c, a protein that plays a key role in the electron transport chain, which is part of how our body generates energy.
    • It helps reduce oxygen to water without producing harmful substances called reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage cells.

    Potential Applications

    • Cu-Phen could be used to make energy systems more efficient, like in bioenergy (energy from living things), by mimicking natural energy-making processes.
    • It could help treat diseases like neurodegenerative diseases and cancer by controlling energy production in cells and reducing harmful effects on the body.
    • These nanozymes can help clean water and make energy systems work better, while reducing pollution and harmful by-products.
    • Cu-Phen can also be used in factories to help make useful products like medicines and chemicals by working like artificial enzymes.
    • This new nanozyme is a step forward in creating artificial enzymes that could be used in many areas like medicine, energy, and manufacturing.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements :

    1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.

    2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.

    3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

    (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3